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电子显微学发展简史

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Electron microscope

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The electron microscope is a type of microscope that uses electrons to create an image of the target. It has much higher magnification and resolving power than a normal light microscope, up to two million times, allowing it to see **aller objects and details.

Contents [hide]

1 History

2 Electron microscope manufacturers

3 Types

3.1 Tran**ission Electron Microscope (TEM)

3.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

3.3 Reflection Electron Microscope (REM)

3.4 Scanning Tran**ission Electron Microscope (STEM)

4 Sample Preparation

5 Disadvantages

6 See also

7 External links

8 References

8.1 Archives

[edit] History

A tran**ission electron microscope.

An image of an ant from a scanning electron microscopeThe first electron microscope prototype was built in 1932 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll. It was based on the ideas and discoveries of French physicist Louis de Broglie. Although it was primitive and not fit for practical use, the instrument was still capable of magnifying objects by four hundred times.

Reinhold Rudenberg, the research director of Siemens, had patented the electron microscope in 1931, although Siemens was doing no research on electron microscopes at that time. In 1937 Siemens began developing the electron microscope, funding Ruska and Bodo von Borries to develop the instrument. Siemens also employed Ruska's brother Helmut to work on applications, particularly with biological materials. [1][2]

Siemens produced the first commercial TEM in 1939, but the first practical electron microscope was built at the University of Toronto in 1938, by Eli Franklin Burton and students Cecil Hall, James Hillier and Albert Prebus.[3]

Although modern electron microscopes can magnify objects up to two million times, they are still based upon Ruska's prototype and his correlation between wavelength and resolution. The electron microscope is an integral part of many laboratories. Researchers use it to examine biological materials (such as microorgani**s and cells), a variety of large molecules, medical biopsy samples, metals and crystalline structures, and the characteristics of various surfaces.

[edit] Electron microscope manufacturers

Major manufacturers include:

Delong Group

FEI Company - USA (formerly a division of Philips Electronics)

FOCUS GmbH - Germany

Hitachi - Japan

JEOL, Inc. - Japan (Japan Electro Optics Laboratory)

TESCAN - EU

Carl Zeiss NTS GmbH

[edit] Types

[edit] Tran**ission Electron Microscope (TEM)

Main article: Tran**ission electron microscopy

The original form of electron microscopy, Tran**ission electron microscopy (TEM) involves a high voltage electron beam emitted by a cathode and formed by magnetic lenses. The electron beam that has been partially tran**itted through the very thin (and so semitransparent for electrons) specimen carries information about the inner structure of the specimen. The spatial variation in this information (the "image") is then magnified by a series of magnetic lenses until it is recorded by hitting a fluorescent screen, photographic plate, or light sensitive sensor such as a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera. The image detected by the CCD may be displayed in real time on a monitor or computer.

Resolution of the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) is limited by spherical aberration and chromatic aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors has been able to overcome spherical aberration. Software correction of spherical aberration has allowed the production of images with sufficient resolution to show carbon atoms in diamond separated by only 0.89 ångström (89 picometers) and atoms in silicon at 0.78 ångström (78 picometers) at magnifications of 50 million times. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an indispensable tool for nano-technologies research and development in many fields, including heterogeneous catalysis and the development of semiconductor devices for electronics and photonics.

Tran**ission electron microscopes produce two-dimensional images.

[edit] Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

Main article: Scanning Electron Microscope

Unlike the TEM, where electrons are detected by beam tran**ission, the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)[4] produces images by detecting secondary electrons which are emitted from the surface due to excitation by the primary electron beam. In the SEM, the electron beam is rastered across the sample, with detectors building up an image by mapping the detected signals with beam position.

Generally, the TEM resolution is about an order of magnitude better than the SEM resolution, however, because the SEM image relies on surface processes rather than tran**ission it is able to image bulk samples and has a much greater depth of view, and so can produce images that are a good representation of the 3D structure of the sample.

[edit] Reflection Electron Microscope (REM)

In addition there is a Reflection Electron Microscope (REM). Like TEM, this technique involves electron beams incident on a surface, but instead of using the tran**ission (TEM) or secondary electrons (SEM), the reflected beam is detected. This technique is typically coupled with Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction and Reflection high-energy loss spectrum (RHELS). Another variation is Spin-Polarized Low-Energy Electron Microscopy (SPLEEM), which is used for looking at the microstructure of magnetic domains [1].

[edit] Scanning Tran**ission Electron Microscope (STEM)

main article: Scanning Tran**ission Electron Microscopy STEM

[edit] Sample Preparation

Materials to be viewed under an electron microscope may require processing to produce a suitable sample. The technique required varies depending on the specimen and the ****ysis required:

Cryofixation - freezing a specimen so rapidly, to liquid nitrogen or even liquid helium temperatures, that the water forms vitreous (non-crystalline) ice. This preserves the specimen in a snapshot of its solution state. An entire field called cryo-electron microscopy has branched from this technique. With the development of cryo-electron microscopy of vitreous sections (CEMOVIS), it is now possible to observe virtually any biological specimen close to its native state.

Fixation - preserving the sample to make it more realistic. Glutaraldehyde - for hardening - and o**ium tetroxide - which stains lipids black - are used.

Dehydration - replacing water with organic solvents such as ethanol or acetone.

Embedding - infiltration of the tissue with a resin such as araldite or epoxy for sectioning.

Sectioning - produces thin slices of specimen, semitransparent to electrons. These can be cut on an ultramicrotome with a diamond knife to produce very thin slices. Glass knives are also used because they can be made in the lab and are much cheaper.

Staining - uses heavy metals such as lead, uranium or tungsten to scatter imaging electrons and thus give contrast between different structures, since many (especially biological) materials are nearly "transparent" to electrons (weak phase objects). In biology, specimens are usually stained "en bloc" before embedding and also later stained directly after sectioning by brief exposure to aqueous (or alcoholic) solutions of the heavy metal stains.

Freeze-fracture or freeze-etch - a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in "face on" view. The fresh tissue or cell suspension is frozen rapidly (cryofixed), then fractured by simply breaking or by using a microtome while maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature. The cold fractured surface (sometimes "etched" by increasing the temperature to about -100°C for several minutes to let some ice sublime) is then shadowed with evaporated platinum or gold at an average angle of 45° in a high vacuum evaporator. A second coat of carbon, evaporated perpendicular to the average surface plane is often performed to improve stability of the replica coating. The specimen is returned to room temperature and pressure, then the extremely fragile "pre-shadowed" metal replica of the fracture surface is released from the underlying biological material by careful chemical digestion with acids, hypochlorite solution or SDS detergent. The still-floating replica is thoroughly washed from residual chemicals, carefully fished up on EM grids, dried then viewed in the TEM.

Ion Beam Milling - thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing ions (typically argon) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface. A subclass of this is Focused ion beam milling, where gallium ions are used to produce an electron transparent membrane in a specific region of the sample, for example through a device within a microprocessor. Ion beam milling may also be used for cross-section polishing prior to SEM ****ysis of materials that are difficult to prepare using mechanical polishing.

Conductive Coating - An ultrathin coating of electrically-conducting material, deposited either by high vacuum evaporation or by low vacuum sputter coating of the sample. This is done to prevent the accumulation of static electric fields at the specimen due to the electron irradiation required during imaging. Such coatings include gold, gold/palladium, platinum, tungsten, graphite etc. and are especially important for the study of specimens with the scanning electron microscope.

[edit] Disadvantages

Pseudocolored SEM image of the feeding basket of Antarctic krill. Real electron microscope images do not carry any color information, they are greyscale. The first degree filter setae carry in v-form two rows of second degree setae, pointing towards the inside of the feeding basket. The purple ball is one micrometer in diameter. To display the total area of this fascinating structure one would have to tile 7500 times this image.Electron microscopes are expensive to buy and maintain. They are dynamic rather than static in their operation: requiring extremely stable high-voltage supplies, extremely stable currents to each electromagnetic coil/lens, continuously-pumped high-/ultra-high-vacuum systems, and a cooling water supply circulation through the lenses and pumps. As they are very sensitive to vibration and external magnetic fields, microscopes aimed at achieving high resolutions must be housed in buildings (sometimes underground) with special services. Newer generations of TEM operating at lower voltages (around 5 kV) do not have stringent voltage supply, lens coil current, cooling water or vibration isolation requirements and as such are much less expensive to buy and far easier to install and maintain.

The samples have to be viewed in vacuum, as the molecules that make up air would scatter the electrons. Recent advances have allowed hydrated samples to be imaged using an environmental scanning electron microscope.

Scanning electron microscopes usually image conductive or semi-conductive materials best. Non-conductive materials can be imaged by an environmental scanning electron microscope. A common preparation technique is to coat the sample with a several-nanometer layer of conductive material, such as gold, from a sputtering machine; however this process has the potential to disturb delicate samples.

The samples have to be prepared in many ways to give proper detail, which may result in artifacts purely the result of treatment. This gives the problem of distinguishing artifacts from material, particularly in biological samples. Scientists maintain that the results from various preparation techniques have been compared, and as there is no reason that they should all produce similar artifacts, it is therefore reasonable to believe that electron microscopy features correlate with living cells. In addition, higher-resolution work has been directly compared to results from X-ray crystallography, providing independent confirmation of the validity of this technique. Recent work performed on unfixated, vitrified specimens has also been performed, further confirming the validity of this technique.

[edit] See also

Wikibooks has more about this subject:

The Opensource Handbook of Nanoscience and NanotechnologyCategory:Electron microscope images

Field emission microscope

[edit] External links

Electron Microscopy Supplies - Ladd Research

Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM)

X-ray element ****ysis in electron microscope - Information portal with X-ray micro****ysis and EDX contents

(John H.L. Watson: VERY EARLY ELECTRON MICROSCOPY IN THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, THE UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO — A PERSONAL RECOLLECTION)

[edit] References

^ DH Kruger, P Schneck and HR Gelderblom (13). "Helmut Ruska and the visualisation of viruses" (in English). The Lancet 355 (9216): 1713-1717. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02250-9.

^ Ernst Ruska (1986). Ernst Ruska Autobiography (English). Nobel Foundation. Retrieved on 2007-02-06.

^ MIT biography of Hillier

^ SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY 1928 - 1965

[edit] Archives

Rubin Borasky Electron Microscopy Collection, 1930-1988 Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.

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Categories: Articles lacking sources from November 2006 | All articles lacking sources | Anatomical pathology | Electron | Microscopes

《自然》（20220210出版）一周论文导读

编译 | 未玖

Nature, 10 February 2022, VOL 602, ISSUE 7896

《自然》 2022年2月10日，第602卷，7896期

天文学 Astronomy

A white dwarf accreting planetary material determined from X-ray observations

X射线观测到白矮星吸积行星物质

作者：Tim Cunningham, Peter J. Wheatley, Pier-Emmanuel Tremblay, Boris T. Gänsicke, George W. King, Odette Toloza, et al.

链接：

摘要

大多数白矮星的大气受到重元素的污染，这些重元素预计会在短时间内从可见层下沉。这被解释为白矮星不断吸积小行星、彗星和巨行星碎片的标志。探测一些白矮星周围的碎片盘和行星碎片凌星现象支持了这一设想。

然而，光球金属只是持续吸积的间接证据，推断的吸积率和母体成分在很大程度上取决于白矮星大气中扩散和混合过程的模型。

研究组报道了被污染白矮星G29–38的X射线4.4σ探测。根据测得的X射线光度，他们推导出瞬时吸积率MX=1.63 109 g s 1，且独立于恒星大气模型。该比率高于过去对G29–38光球丰度研究所作的估计，表明可能需要对流过冲来模拟白矮星碎片聚集的光谱。

研究组测量出kBT= 0.5   0.2 keV的低等离子体温度，证实了此前预测的白矮星以低吸积率吸积的爆炸方式。

Abstract

The atmospheres of a large proportion of white dwarf stars are polluted by heavy elements that are expected to sink out of visible layers on short timescales. This has been interpreted as a signature of ongoing accretion of debris from asteroids, comets and giant planets. This scenario is supported by the detection of debris discs and transits of planetary fragments around some white dwarfs. However, photospheric metals are only indirect evidence for ongoing accretion, and the inferred accretion rates and parent body compositions heavily depend on models of diffusion and mixing processes within the white dwarf atmosphere. Here we report a 4.4σ detection of X-rays from a polluted white dwarf, G29–38. From the measured X-ray luminosity, we derive an instantaneous accretion rate of MX=1.63 109 g s 1, which is independent of stellar atmosphere models. This rate is higher than estimates from past studies of the photospheric abundances of G29–38, suggesting that convective overshoot may be needed to model the spectra of debris-accreting white dwarfs. We measure a low pla**a temperature of kBT = 0.5   0.2 keV, corroborating the predicted bombardment solution for white dwarfs accreting at low accretion rates.

物理学 Physics

Real-space visualization of intrinsic magnetic fields of an antiferromagnet

反铁磁体内禀磁场的实空间可视化

作者：Yuji Kohno, Takehito Seki, Scott D. Findlay, Yuichi Ikuhara Naoya Shibata

链接：

摘要

原子尺度的磁性结构表征，是材料和器件中纳米磁性设计与调控的核心。然而，在该维度上，磁场的实空间可视化一直颇具挑战性。近年来，原子分辨率差分相衬扫描透射电子显微镜（DPC STEM）已能够直接成像单个原子内部的电场分布。

研究组展示了在无磁场环境中使用原子分辨率DPC STEM实现反铁磁赤铁矿（α-Fe2O3）内部磁场分布的实空间可视化。

在去除原子电场引起的相移分量并通过单元平均法提高信噪比后，研究组实现了α-Fe2O3内禀磁场的实空间可视化。这些研究结果为许多磁性结构的实空间表征提供了新途径。

Abstract

Characterizing magnetic structures down to atomic dimensions is central to the design and control of nanoscale magneti** in materials and devices. However, real-space visualization of magnetic fields at such dimensions has been extremely challenging. In recent years, atomic-resolution differential phase contrast scanning tran**ission electron microscopy (DPC STEM) has enabled direct imaging of electric field distribution even inside single atoms. Here we show real-space visualization of magnetic field distribution inside antiferromagnetic haematite (α-Fe2O3) using atomic-resolution DPC STEM in a magnetic-field-free environment. After removing the phase-shift component due to atomic electric fields and improving the signal-to-noise ratio by unit-cell averaging, real-space visualization of the intrinsic magnetic fields in α-Fe2O3 is realized. These results open a new possibility for real-space characterization of many magnetic structures.

Ferroelectric incommensurate spin crystals

铁电不相称自旋晶体

作者：Dorin Rusu, Jonathan J. P. Peters, Thomas P. A. Hase, James A. Gott, Gareth A. A. Ni**et, Jörg Strempfer, et al.

链接：

摘要

铁性材料，尤其是铁磁体，在特定的电和力学边界条件下，可形成复杂的拓扑自旋结构，如漩涡和斯格明子。

在专用铁电系统中，尤其是在PbTiO3/SrTiO3等铁电-绝缘体超晶格中，人们已观察到简单的涡状电偶极子拓扑结构，但后来由于其高去极化场，被证明是一个模型系统。迄今为止，还没有实验观察到由Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya相互作用（DMi）驱动的有序磁自旋晶格的等效电偶极。

研究组探讨了夹在SrRuO3电极间的单一PbTiO3外延层的畴结构。他们观察到周期性的顺时针和逆时针铁电旋涡，沿其环形核心受到二阶调制。计算结果支持的拓扑结构是具有两个正交周期调制的迷宫状图案，形成了一个不相称的极性晶体，其铁电性类似于最近在铁磁材料中发现的不相称自旋晶体。

这些发现进一步模糊了突现铁磁和铁电拓扑之间的边界，为未来磁DMi驱动相的电对应物的实验实现扫清了道路。

Abstract

Ferroics, especially ferromagnets, can form complex topological spin structures such as vortices and skyrmions when subjected to particular electrical and mechanical boundary conditions. Simple vortex-like, electric-dipole-based topological structures have been observed in dedicated ferroelectric systems, especially ferroelectric–insulator superlattices such as PbTiO3/SrTiO3, which was later shown to be a model system owing to its high depolarizing field. To date, the electric dipole equivalent of ordered magnetic spin lattices driven by the Dzyaloshinskii–Moriya interaction (DMi) has not been experimentally observed. Here we examine a domain structure in a single PbTiO3 epitaxial layer sandwiched between SrRuO3 electrodes. We observe periodic clockwise and anticlockwise ferroelectric vortices that are modulated by a second ordering along their toroidal core. The resulting topology, supported by calculations, is a labyrinth-like pattern with two orthogonal periodic modulations that form an incommensurate polar crystal that provides a ferroelectric ****ogue to the recently discovered incommensurate spin crystals in ferromagnetic materials. These findings further blur the border between emergent ferromagnetic and ferroelectric topologies, clearing the way for experimental realization of further electric counterparts of magnetic DMi-driven phases.

材料科学 Materials Science

A highly distorted ultraelastic chemically complex Elinvar alloy

一种高度变形超弹性化学复杂的艾林瓦合金

作者：Q. F. He, J. G. Wang, H. A. Chen, Z. Y. Ding, Z. Q. Zhou, L. H. Xiong, et al.

链接：

摘要

高性能超弹性金属的研发具有超高强度、大弹性应变极限和温度不敏感的弹性模量（艾林瓦效应），对于从致动器、医疗设备到高精度仪器的各种工业应用都至关重要。由于位错易滑动，体晶金属的弹性应变极限通常小于1%。

形状记忆合金（包括胶质金属和应变玻璃合金）的弹性应变极限可高达几个百分点，虽然这是伪弹性的结果，且伴随着巨大的能量耗散。近年来，化学性质复杂的合金，如“高熵”合金，因其良好性能引发了人们广泛的研究兴趣。

在这项工作中，研究组报道了一种化学复杂的合金，其原子尺寸错配较大，常规合金通常无法承受。该合金在室温下具有较高的弹性应变极限（约2%）和极低的内耗（小于2    10 4 ）。

更有趣的是，这种合金表现出非凡的艾林瓦效应，在室温和627 （900K）之间的弹性模量近乎恒定，迄今为止报道的现有合金均无法与之比拟。

Abstract

The development of high-performance ultraelastic metals with superb strength, a large elastic strain limit and temperature-insensitive elastic modulus (Elinvar effect) are important for various industrial applications, from actuators and medical devices to high-precision instruments. The elastic strain limit of bulk crystalline metals is usually less than 1 per cent, owing to dislocation easy gliding. Shape memory alloys—including gum metals and strain glass alloys—may attain an elastic strain limit up to several per cent, although this is the result of pseudo-elasticity and is accompanied by large energy dissipation. Recently, chemically complex alloys, such as ‘high-entropy’ alloys, have attracted tremendous research interest owing to their promising properties. In this work we report on a chemically complex alloy with a large atomic size misfit usually unaffordable in conventional alloys. The alloy exhibits a high elastic strain limit (approximately 2 per cent) and a very low internal friction (less than 2    10 4 ) at room temperature. More interestingly, this alloy exhibits an extraordinary Elinvar effect, maintaining near-constant elastic modulus between room temperature and 627 degrees Celsius (900 kelvin), which is, to our knowledge, unmatched by the existing alloys hitherto reported.

人工智能 Artificial Intelligence

Outracing champion Gran Turi**o drivers with deep reinforcement learning

通过深度强化学习超越Gran Turi**o冠军级赛车手

作者：Peter R. Wurman, Samuel Barrett, Kenta Kawamoto, James MacGlashan, Kaushik Subramanian, Thomas J. Walsh, et al.

链接：

摘要

人工智能的许多潜在应用涉及与人类交互时在物理系统中做出实时决策。赛车就是这种情况的一个典型代表；赛车手必须执行复杂的战术性操作以超越或阻挡对手，同时在牵引力极限下驾驶赛车。

赛车模拟，比如PlayStation 游戏 Gran Turi**o，忠实地再现了真实赛车的非线性控制挑战，同时也封装了复杂的多代理交互。

研究组介绍了他们如何训练Gran Turi**o的AI代理，使其能够与世界上最优秀的电子竞技赛车手相匹敌。他们将最先进的、无模型的深度强化学习算法与混合场景训练相结合，来学习一种综合控制策略，将卓越的速度与令人印象深刻的战术相结合。

此外，研究组还构建了一个奖励函数，使AI代理能够在遵守重要但灵活的赛车规则的同时保持竞争力。最终研究组的AI代理Gran Turi**o Sophy崭露头角，在正面竞争中战胜了四名世界顶级Gran Turi**o赛车手。

通过描述如何训练冠军级别的赛车手，研究组展示了使用这些技术来控制复杂动态系统的机遇和挑战，在这些领域中，AI代理必须尊重灵活定义的人类规则。

Abstract

Many potential applications of artificial intelligence involve making real-time decisions in physical systems while interacting with humans. Automobile racing represents an extreme example of these conditions; drivers must execute complex tactical manoeuvres to pass or block opponents while operating their vehicles at their traction limits. Racing simulations, such as the PlayStation game Gran Turi**o, faithfully reproduce the non-linear control challenges of real race cars while also encapsulating the complex multi-agent interactions. Here we describe how we trained agents for Gran Turi**o that can compete with the world’s best e-sports drivers. We combine state-of-the-art, model-free, deep reinforcement learning algorithms with mixed-scenario training to learn an integrated control policy that combines exceptional speed with impressive tactics. In addition, we construct a reward function that enables the agent to be competitive while adhering to racing’s important, but under-specified, sport**anship rules. We demonstrate the capabilities of our agent, Gran Turi**o Sophy, by winning a head-to-head competition against four of the world’s best Gran Turi**o drivers. By describing how we trained championship-level racers, we demonstrate the possibilities and challenges of using these techniques to control complex dynamical systems in domains where agents must respect imprecisely defined human norms.

地球科学 Earth Science

Superionic iron alloys and their sei**ic velocities in Earth’s inner core

超离子铁合金及其在地球内核中的地震速度

作者：Yu He, Shichuan Sun, Duck Young Kim, Bo Gyu Jang, Heping Li Ho-kwang Mao

链接：

摘要

地球内核（IC）的密度低于纯铁，这表明其内部存在轻元素。硅、硫、碳、氧和氢被认为是候选元素，人们研究了铁-轻元素合金的性能以约束IC成分。轻元素对铁合金的地震速度、熔化温度和热导率有很大影响。然而，人们很少考虑IC中轻元素的状态。

研究组利用第一性原理分子动力学模拟，发现在IC条件下，六方密排铁中的氢、氧和碳转变为超离子态，表现出像流体一样的高扩散系数。这表明IC可以处于超离子态，而非正常固态。

流体轻元素导致地震速度大幅降低，接近IC的地震学观测值。横波波速的大幅降低为软IC提供了一种解释。此外，轻元素对流对IC地震学结构和磁场也有潜在影响。

Abstract

Earth’s inner core (IC) is less dense than pure iron, indicating the existence of light elements within it. Silicon, sulfur, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen have been suggested to be the candidates, and the properties of iron–light-element alloys have been studied to constrain the IC composition. Light elements have a substantial influence on the sei**ic velocities, the melting temperatures and the thermal conductivities of iron alloys. However, the state of the light elements in the IC is rarely considered. Here, using ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, we find that hydrogen, oxygen and carbon in hexagonal close-packed iron transform to a superionic state under the IC conditions, showing high diffusion coefficients like a liquid. This suggests that the IC can be in a superionic state rather than a normal solid state. The liquid-like light elements lead to a substantial reduction in the sei**ic velocities, which approach the sei**ological observations of the IC. The substantial decrease in shear-wave velocity provides an explanation for the soft IC. In addition, the light-element convection has a potential influence on the IC sei**ological structure and magnetic field.

"molecular devices microplate reader" 是什么仪器?

molecular devices是公司，microplate reader是产品

产品简介：

波长范围为340-850nm，波长连续可调，递增量为1nm，相当于在340-850nm范围内，可以选择510个滤光片。可进行双波长读数，可以分别显示各个波长下的吸光度值，以适应用户不同的数据处理方法。具有温度控制和震荡功能，可进行终点法和动力学测读。经济实用的连续波长的酶标仪。采用SOFTmaxPRO控制软件，并可与全自动加样机等全自动设备兼容。

任何采用微孔盘，可见光测度的试验

微生物生长/MIC

IC50s/LD50s

终点法ELISAs

细胞增殖/细胞毒性

蛋白比色试验

动力学ELISAs/酶试验

细菌鉴定

血栓/溶栓

flipr molecular devices高通量实时荧光检测分析系统怎么使用

根据你要测序的试剂的cycles数目和你的芯片上的簇来判断你的总数据量，再看你每一个样本需要的数据量是多少