请帮忙翻译，关于语言学的

我自己也看不懂

因为字要求将会有将会阻塞它的联合遗产表达 , 所以如此 (171) 将会没有预想 (172):

(171) 北大西洋公约组织要求核子的挽留事物是重要的

(172)在那里存在核子的挽留事物

当我们注意了上方的时候, 它不是清楚的那个塞子是一个有用的种类, 但是如果他们是, 这里是～的互相密合着的方式～ modelling 他们。 同样地用 过滤器的班级:每连接物将会有被它联合将会仅仅阻塞比较低的成份句子的预想遗产表达，以防万一过滤为条件在 (137) 而且 (138) 被碰到。 举例来说, 当某物喜欢，捕获过滤情况因为有条件的遗产表达能被想到 :(173)

(173) 传统的 implicatures 是否 p 然后 q( 以及也许 p 和 q) 和表达‘一起是 p 的传统 implicatures 是否 p 然后 q 的传统 implicatures'

看见这个工厂如何应用它到一个情形起来像哪里预想,(175),接连发生的事情被过滤:

(174)如果约翰有孩子,所有的 john's 孩子一定出去

(175)约翰有孩子

这里整个的意志预想是前情的预想是 (举例来说约翰存在) 无论什么,加上建议如果约翰有孩子,那麽他有孩子。 既然这个建议是 tautologous ，它是空的, 而且说者是明确地不委托到 (175) 即使所有的约翰孩子预先假定 ( 否则照惯例产生关系,在这个理论的用辞中) 的片语.(175)

因为洞 Karttunen 彼得能仅仅明显的让遗产表达允许 implicature 表达登上变成全部的传统 implicatures 。

因此，在这个理论上，预想是不实际上取消,他们在句子的引出期间被阻塞并且只是从全部不 出现。 在许多方面这是一高度地复杂而且小心地构造了模型以能在里面被完全使正式也许是同时代的语言学理论的最严厉的东西 。

英文达人请进！！！麻烦帮忙翻译文章 不算长 中译英

In the" friends" in violation of the cooperative principle and implication for expression of the humorous effect is a common phenomenon. Secondly, in the four maxims of cooperative principle, violation of frequency from high to low is the maxim of quality, quantity relationship rules, norms and standards. Finally, on the violation of cooperative principle in various standards under the time codes," friends" in the humorous speech has the following three features: one is violates the maxim of quantity, much of the humor effect is due to provide redundant information and cause; two is in violation of the guidelines, the majority of cases of violation of its humor the first criterion, and the use of irony, metaphor, exaggeration, weak was contradictory rhetoric. Three is the" friends" in violation of rules of verbal humor way first "guidelines for avoiding redundant" the highest frequency, but" be orderly" this time criterion basically abided by.

From the perspective of cooperative principle, the speaker intends to violate the cooperative principle in the case of manufacturing, implication, and the hearer aware of the implication, to infer the humorous special conversational implicature. From the perspective of Relevance Theory in Express - reasoning, maximal relevance and optimal relevance in understanding verbal humor. We know from the comparison of Relevance Theory on humorous discourse interpretation of stronger, but we should not deny the cooperative principle to the humorous discourse interpretation.

As a loved by the audience of the sitcom," Friends" wonderful and not just from its original reproduction. Although the" Friends" from first to last strictly follows the American sitcom basic rules: each story lifted the climax will be in half an hour's time to settle. From the production point of view, we not only can not find any particular place, but it will be able to use, the lack of new ideas to describe it too observant of conventional standards. However," Friends" do not think like you very boring. Just watch an episode, no one can escape from indulge in the wildest fantasy story, climax after the story of every hue and the guest star of the" fatal attraction". Especially those of relaxed and humorous dialogues, contains a unique" American" humor, a be overwhelmed with admiration for.

" Friends" is popular, it is because it completely with the consumer good products quality, and more importantly, in the laughter, it allows us to see another and our ordinary life, the people of every hue, principle, interest, because of the emotional status of contradictions, a joke, at the same time, affection, friendship, love and here sublimation. " Friends" virtually becomes a mirror of our daily life, allows us to learn life, to enjoy the life of those truth goodness and beauty.

【希望采纳】

关于leech礼貌原则的翻译

Politeness Principle and the hypocrisy of human kind

Politeness is one of the major social constraints on human interaction regulating participants' communicative behavior by constantly reminding them to take into consideration the feelings of the others.

(He Zi'ran 2003)

Leech (1983) proposed the Politeness Principle which is formulated in a general way from 2 aspects:

1) to minimize the expression of impolite beliefs

2) to maximize the expression of polite beliefs

The Politeness Principle encompasses six maxims: Tact maxim, Generosity maxim, Approbation maxim, Modesty maxim, Agreement maxim and Sympathy maxim.

Apparently, as He Zi'ran mentioned, it is necessary to consider the hearer's feelings in order to establish a mutual rapport between the conversationers. Human is really a face-wanting animal (face is Goffman (1959)'s term originated from Chinese). According to Goffman, face is a sacred thing for every human being, an essential factor communicators have to pay attention to. Face wants are reciprocal, that is, if one wants her face cared for, she should care for other people's face.

The problem is that Leech naively (in an unoffensive way) believed that most people will stick to these six maxims in verbal interations, or even other human interations.

Here is my interrogation: how motivated is every human being in saving others' face? Honestly, I would say that I am not a highly motivated face-saving human being. And I guess that there must be a large amount of people who would agree with me. I think the truth is, most people are reluctant in saving others' face or considering others' feelings, because saving others' face may cost too much of their own face, which is contradictory to the claim that every human being wants her/ his face. Oh, this might look like a logical fallacy. But just suppose in particular contexts, for example, a guy just goes bankrupt and loses his girlfriend at the same day, how likely will he considering his friends' feelings when they (with the disasters unknown)are speaking in dispraise of his taste?

So, the most possible situations when the Politeness Principle is used would be those hypocritical situations where the speaker and the hearer both want something from each other (this sounds really evil, right?). But not all people use the PP for this double-dealing purpose. Or does this kind of purpose of being polite happen only among hypocritical people? Or do all kinds of people actually keep this purpose in their mind and pretend that they are polite to others?

People can cover themselves well under the politeness strategies they use. After all, this article is a summary of my daydreams that i had when attending pragmatics lectures.

Donews首页

Donews社区

Donews邮箱

我的首页

联系作者

聚合

登录

Blog统计

文章 - 122

收藏 - 11

评论 - 129

Trackbacks - 0

文章

All trivial (RSS)

family's works(RSS)

Journey logs(RSS)

Love Life(RSS)

Music food(RSS)

Neandertal's daydreams(RSS)

Pure Academic (RSS)

Short Messages (RSS)

收藏

Lyrics

novels

Poems

Proses

相册

爸爸的摄影

你看到我的朋友肯定也是笑的

你看到我肯定是笑的

我也追星

Friends

潮汕八卦门猥琐门已故掌门

和我一样喜欢手链耳坠的hihi

有时间并不免费

Jazz Jazzy Jazzists

Introduction to Jazz bands and their discography- a history of jazz before 30s

Painters

Poets

Langston Hughes' Biography and Everything else about him

Langston Hughes' poems

Pennies for Poetry资源丰富的诗歌网站

W.B. Yeats 叶芝 (My favorite Irish poet)

Readings for good

Atlas of the Human Journey

可爱的Shnappi

时代书城

书评：The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey《出非洲记》

****中文

Singers Bands

Coldplay's website

Craig David's official site

Death cab for cutie

Ella Fitzgerald

Eva Cassidy

Lifehouse

Louis Armstrong

Sidsel Endresen

Sophie Zelmani

Writers

存档

2006年06月(1)

2006年04月(7)

2006年03月(1)

2006年02月(2)

2006年01月(5)

2005年12月(19)

2005年11月(28)

2005年10月(20)

2005年08月(1)

2005年07月(8)

2005年06月(2)

2005年05月(13)

2005年04月(13)

最近评论

molly：支持。

17：其实发生了很多事，每天都有各式各样的事情发生，永远没有结局，就好象电视剧，一个事情的结束也是另一个事情的开始。

太多太多时候的想法太乱了，以致没有办法写出来，不过这些在心里都是一个过程。

累吧？好好休息一下吧。

adah：这期间碰到好多障碍，有客观的有主观的，自己心里也很乱，再加上最近也很懒，也没时间整理心情，可能要缓冲一段时间我才写得出比较好的文字吧。

susan：美女，自从拍拖后你就不写blog了

为什么不写写恋爱中的感受呢？you are such a little girl.;)

牛牛：我以前读过一篇文章,Susan Bordo的The Male Body(重新发现男性身体的美),里面很多论述如何重新定义男性身体和如今社会对身体的错误认识，很文化很女权主义的一篇论述。可惜找不到中文版本的，在网上也很难找到关于这篇文章的资料。现在的男人也开始越来越担心自己的身体了呢！

……

Politeness Principle and the hypocrisy of human kind

Politeness is one of the major social constraints on human interaction regulating participants' communicative behavior by constantly reminding them to take into consideration the feelings of the others.

(He Zi'ran 2003)

Leech (1983) proposed the Politeness Principle which is formulated in a general way from 2 aspects:

1) to minimize the expression of impolite beliefs

2) to maximize the expression of polite beliefs

The Politeness Principle encompasses six maxims: Tact maxim, Generosity maxim, Approbation maxim, Modesty maxim, Agreement maxim and Sympathy maxim.

Apparently, as He Zi'ran mentioned, it is necessary to consider the hearer's feelings in order to establish a mutual rapport between the conversationers. Human is really a face-wanting animal (face is Goffman (1959)'s term originated from Chinese). According to Goffman, face is a sacred thing for every human being, an essential factor communicators have to pay attention to. Face wants are reciprocal, that is, if one wants her face cared for, she should care for other people's face.

The problem is that Leech naively (in an unoffensive way) believed that most people will stick to these six maxims in verbal interations, or even other human interations.

Here is my interrogation: how motivated is every human being in saving others' face? Honestly, I would say that I am not a highly motivated face-saving human being. And I guess that there must be a large amount of people who would agree with me. I think the truth is, most people are reluctant in saving others' face or considering others' feelings, because saving others' face may cost too much of their own face, which is contradictory to the claim that every human being wants her/ his face. Oh, this might look like a logical fallacy. But just suppose in particular contexts, for example, a guy just goes bankrupt and loses his girlfriend at the same day, how likely will he considering his friends' feelings when they (with the disasters unknown)are speaking in dispraise of his taste?

So, the most possible situations when the Politeness Principle is used would be those hypocritical situations where the speaker and the hearer both want something from each other (this sounds really evil, right?). But not all people use the PP for this double-dealing purpose. Or does this kind of purpose of being polite happen only among hypocritical people? Or do all kinds of people actually keep this purpose in their mind and pretend that they are polite to others?

People can cover themselves well under the politeness strategies they use. After all, this article is a summary of my daydreams that i had when attending pragmatics lectures.

To avoid the possible confusion caused by the literal meaning of “implication”, Grice introduces the “implicature” and “conversational implicature”, which refers to “the implications which can be deduced from the form of an utterance, on the basis of certain co-operative principle which governs the efficiency and normal acceptability of conversations.” After mentioning the particular word “say” and conventional meaning of sentences, Grice emphasizes a whole system with four categories , which develops into nine specific maxims or sub-maxims:

(1) Maxim of Quantity

1 Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

2 Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

(2) Maxim of Quality

Super-maxim: try to make your contribution one that is true.

1 Do not say what is you believe to be false.

2 Do not say what for which you lack adequate evidence.

(3) Maxim of Relation

Be relevant.

(4) Maxim of Manner

1 Avoid obscurity of expression.

2 Avoid ambiguity.

3 Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).

4 Be orderly.

Grice realizes some disputable elements in his system himself, and it turns to be some points of his theory of conversational implicature that are argued heartily by other linguists.

Since Grice’s theory of implicature was brought about, whose freshness and significance were recognized immediately by the linguists, most of whom valued highly of them. However, it seems apparent that certain redundancy and even contradiction exist in the theoretical structure, so there appears plenty of critici**s; for example, some linguistics scholars point out the inexactness of the formulations of conversational implicature and the quite doubtful real significance that is related to the inexactness. Some of the critici**s are reasonably based on profound study and deeply ****ysis of Grice and his theory of conversational implicature. Now, instead of presenting an endless list of sound or unfair critici**s, it is useful for us to look into some key modifications of Grice’s theory of conversational formulas proposed by several contemporary linguists.

Dan Sperber and Deirdre Wilson consider the Gricean maxim to be too redundant. Their view on the communication is that

“--- more psychological point of view, defining communication is not a primary concern. --- Our aim is to identify underlying mechani**s, rooted in human psychology, which explain how humans communicate with one another. A psychologically well-founded definition and typology of communication, if possible at all, should follow from a theoretical account of these underlying mechani**s.”

From this perspective, they point out the defect of Grice’s view on communication, “--- the main defect of Grice’s ****ysis is not that it defines communication too vaguely, but that it explains communication too poorly.” (ib, id) According to the theory of inference, communication refers to the audience trying to recognize the speaker’s informative intention. However, you cannot say that recognizing intentions is a formal feature of human cognition, and the awareness of that communication is not only a recognizing behavior. The recognition of informative intentions presents problems, which the recognition of other human intentions does not. Besides, Grice, talking only of verbal communication, argues,

“Our talk exchanges --- are characteristically, to some degree at least, cooperative efforts; and each participant recognizes in them, to some extent, a common or set of purposes, or at least a mutually accepted direction --- at each stage, some possible conversational moves would be excluded as conversationally unsuitable. We might then formulate a rough general principle which participants will be expected to observe, namely: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”

This is Grice’s co-operative principle, which is developed into nine maxims classified into four categories. This account of the general standards governing verbal communication makes it possible to explain how the utterance of a sentence, which provides only an incomplete and ambiguous representation of a thought, can nevertheless express a complete and unambiguous thought. Of the various thoughts, the audience need not consider any that are incompatible with the assumption, in which the speaker is obeying the co-operative principle and maxims. If only one thought is left, them the hearer can infer that it is this thought that the speaker is trying to communicate. Thus, to communicate efficiently, all speaker is has to do is utter a sentence only one interpretation of which is compatible with the assumption that he is obeying the co-operative principle and maxims. For example, lets see the following dialogue:

(1) A: Do you want some coffee?

B: Coffee would keep me awake.

(2) B does not want to stay awake.

(3) B does not want any coffee.

Suppose that A is aware of (1). Then from the assumption expressed by B’s answer, add it to the assumption (2), he could infer conclusion (3). Grice seems to think that the hearer uses the assumption that the speaker has observed the maxims as a premise in inference. Others have tried to reinterpret the maxim as code-like rules, and yield pragmatic representations of utterances as output (Gazdar 1979). Let’s see Gazdar’s proposal from the following remarks:

“The tactic adopted here is to examine some of the data that would, or should be, covered by Grice’s quantity maxim and then propose a relatively simple formal solution to the problem of describing the behavior of that data. This solution may be seen as a special case of Grice’s quantity maxim, or as an alternative to it, or as merely a conventional rule for assigning one class of conversational meanings to one class of utterance.”

Grice’s view on implicature raises many basic questions. What is the rationale behind the co-operative principle and maxims? Are there just the nine maxims Grice mentioned, or might others be needed, as he suggests himself? Now lets ****yze the last part of Grice’s principle of Quality, which is widely argued ever since it appeared. In his essay “Logic and Conversation”, Grice puts two maxims under the principle of Quantity:

1 Make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).

2 Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. (Grice, 1975)

Grice himself admits in the paper that it is disputable whether the second maxim of the principle of Quantity is needed or not because of that: on the one hand, over-informative is merely a waste of time, but providing more information is not transgression of the Co-operative Principle; on the other hand, it is possible that such over-informativeness may be confusing, and it is likely to raise misunderstandings or aside issues; To prevent this kind of inefficiency of conversation, we prefer obeying the Principle of Relation to the second maxim of Quantity. As to the Principle of Relation, Grice recognizes many problems existing in its formulation, “Though the maxim itself is terse, its formulation conceals a number of problems that exercise me a good deal: questions about what different kinds and focuses of relevance there may be, how these shift in the course of a talk exchange, how to allow for the fact that subjects of conversation are legitimately changed, and so on.” However, he considers that those problems are so difficult that he could only leave them to his latter research. Grice’s uncertainty of the Principle of Relation leaves large room for later linguists to rearrange the maxims by their own theory.

As an example, Sperber and Wilson put the second maxim of Quantity under a principle of relevance ---- as Grice predicts at the very beginning of his article on Conversational Implicature comes out in public someone may do this. Sperber and Wilson seem to be a little too enthusiastic about the possible overlap in Grice’s theory to notice the complication of conversation, and consequently over-simplify Grice’s principle of Quantity. Laurence Horn recognizes that language in use cannot be that simple; he tries to replace all the Grice’s maxims of conversation by his Q-principle and I-principle, but he is unable to explain the principle of Quality. Horn’s Q-principle and I-principle shows us that he thinks in a typical two-side way. In this aspect, Horn differs from Sperber and Wilson’s single-mindedly focus on Relevance, which is too extreme. However, the balance kept by Horn is still far from the intricateness of real conversation. Both the extreme “Relevance” of Sperber and Wilson and Horn’s two-sided theory of Q-principle and I-principle are simple enough to fit into a clearly organized structure, but how can the real meaning and utility remain in an over-simplified theory? Unlike Sperber, Wilson and Horn, Levinson treats Grice’s theory of Co-operative principle much more correctly; he comparatively has a more serious attitude and constructs a more complex system of maxims. He sets the second maxim of Grice’s principle of quantity as a separate principle, and calls it “Principle of Informativeness”. He is adequately meticulous when he separates the system of three principles; for example, he tries to restrict the scope of the Q-principle to prevent overlap between the Q-principle and I-principle. It may be his over-confidence in his own study on the various theories of communication, Levinson revises Grice’s Co-operative principle, esp. the principle of manner in a new way but he pays too little attention to the principle of Quality; he at least faces squarely the complication of conversation in real life; if his theory is not convincing enough, he has to make a lot of efforts to attempt to account for it in a reasonable way.

In conclusion, we should admit that Grice’s theory of Conversational Inplicature contributes a lot to the development of pragmatics as a fresh, creative and independent branch of linguistics; it is esp. remarkable that the theory shows how, in the event of an apparent violation of the co-operative principle and maxims, hearers are expected to make any assumptions needed to dispose of the violation. The theory of conversational imlicature is “redundant”, even “self-conflicting and overlapping”, and to some extent it is too idealized and far from perfect, but the most serious problems in Grice’s theory are those he discovers himself. Grice’s innovative endeavor to create a general philosophical theory of language is meaningful. The significance and the utility are far more important than the issues from many commentators.

会话含义理论中含义的特征有哪些

“会话含义”(conversational implicature)是美国哲学家格莱斯首先提出的，它是语用学的核心内容，在言语交际中起着非常重要的作用。

会话含义的特点

格赖斯（1975）针对会话含义和规约意义的区别，指出会话含义具有五个特点：

1）可取消性（cancellability）

在具体情况下，一个会话含义可以通过附加一个分句而被取消或者通过上下文表明说话人放弃了那个会话含义。例如，“Bill has four books．”一句带有这样的含义：比尔只有四本书，不多也不少。但若在该句之后加上“…and perhaps five or more．”这样一个分句，则先前的含义（即比尔只有四本书，不多也不少）就被取消了。

2）不可分离性（non－detachability）

除了背景知识外，说话人所说的话的内容而非它的形式在产生会话含义中起作用。换言之，会话含义依附于话语内容，而不依附于话语形式。因此，一般说来，一个人不可能通过改变同一内容的不同**而改变会话含义。例如：

A：What did you think of the lecture？

B：Well，I thought the lecture hall was big．

B句的会话含义是：“没有多少人对讲座感兴趣”。如果将句中的thought换成believed，should say，reckoned等词，big换成large，great等词，句子的会话含义仍然存在。

3）可推导性（calculability）

所谓可推导性，指的是听话人一方面根据话语的字面意义，另一方面根据合作原则的各项准则，推导出相应的会话含义。（何自然，1988）。

4）非规约性（non－conventionality）

会话含义不是话语的规约意义（conventional meaning）。也就是说，会话含义不是字面意义，也不是字面意义的一部分。它是通过合作原则中各项准则，通过话语的字面意义，结合语境推导出来的。字面意义在话语中是不变的，会话含义则视语境的不同而变化。例如，“It's cold here．”在某一特定语境中可能产生出“关窗”这个会话含义，而在另外一些语境中则可能产生一些其他的会话含义。

5）不确定性（indeterminacy）

推导会话含义就是推导交际双方在遵守合作原则的前提下话语的种种解释；而这种解释随语境的不同又可以有无数个，因而会话含义是不确定的。列文森（1983）举的一个例子是：“John is a machine．”这句话在不同的语境中可以表达“约翰是冷酷的”、“约翰是能干的”、“约翰不停地干活”或“约翰不会动脑子”等会话含义。

conventional implicature是什么意思

conventional implicature

传统的会话含义

implicature[英][ˈɪmplɪkətʃə(r)]

n.会话含义;

词典结果：

conventional

[英][kənˈvenʃənl][美][kənˈvɛnʃənəl]

adj.传统的; 习用的，平常的; 依照惯例的; 约定的;

易混淆单词：Conventional

例句:

1.

This gives renewable electricity priority over conventional power.

这使得可再生能源发电比传统能源更有优势。

2.

China also has large conventional gas resources.

中国还拥有大量常规天然气资源