请问 gender norms 的准确翻译是什么?谢谢~

Gender Norms.

What is considered as appropriate behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes for males and females, as directed by a society.

其实就是由社会所定义的，男性与女性恰当的行为、理念、态度。

gender-typed-household-set是什么意思

gender-typed household set

另性别角色的家庭设置

例句筛选

The effect of social norms and socialization on the gender-typed occupationis more significant for female than male workers. 3.

另性别角色的社会文化规范建构与社会化过程结果，对于女性劳动者在选择性别类型职业的影响力要比男性明显；

gender norms

gender norms---准确的说法应该是“后天性别准则”

gender跟sex不同，它更强调人类在后天社会环境下培养成的“性别”，比如说“人妖”“gay”“le**ian”

所以全句应该译为：“后天性别判定准则和预估会对犯罪行为和受害经历的类型造成不同影响“

pattern意思很多，这里取“类型，方式”的意思即可

请外语高手帮我写一篇英文文章，急用，拜托！

Historical "reality" of the gain and loss asses**ent of the history of a new society --- America, the rise of the new social history background system. It is generally believed that the new social history is the history of the third wave of American history. Several major issues of principle in the traditional history to the United States to launch challenges. American scholars in the history of a great uproar. First, they "single, unified national destiny" This concept raises finished second. They seek to negate the "United national identity" exist. Moreover, the 1960s, historians thought that the rise of civilians also raised doubts that the study only to leaders of the United States to reflect the political development process? Overall said. America is the new social history to the long-standing rule of American history scholars "unity" launched challenges. This camp historians believe. Including ministers, political leaders, lawyers and members of the Protestant elite and can not represent all the American people and the entire American society. So. In essence the new social history embodied in a new "special" quest. The emphasis is on American social and cultural diversity characteristics. As Kaiselei Harris (Kessler-Harris). New social history "is the respect for different cultural groups. And the recognition of diversity "[1] (p.178). Social historians who strive to explore new multi-ethnic, multi-ethnic group between strong and active "interaction". To understand how different interest groups competing. From their study. Development of a new concept. In the same course of the formation of national goals. Racial, gender and ethnic nature of such factors is to play their role in promoting or hindering. Theoretically sources said that the new social history of Western academic ideas. France is the first school yearbook. It attaches to the historical structure, deeply hidden, long-term continuation of the "structure" and the relative neglect of specific historical events. They considered. War, treaties, royal kin marriage far less geographic, demographic changes, climate and trade D-type. These structural and regional food more important things. Under the influence of the school yearbook. American historian focusing on the material "real presence" and in-depth regional study. They also use ethnology technology. Expanding sources of information. Trying to find a way through micro - macro structural issues clues. Their research may help both their knowledge of c system. One is the use of social science conduct school experience. It opposes subjectivity. Pursue accuracy, social reality more neutral position. Pasen (TalcottPar remuneration son) on the social realities of a world system relations theory. For the historian to discover "the principles of orderly". His social balance and social organi**s self-1 holding capacity perspective. That the use of "structure" to better understand the concept of community organizations. They found that the existing structure to attack the new events will cause a new social balance. Eventually lead to changes in national and social groups. In short, it was the emphasis on historians to study static promote social stability and structural factors. Another theory from the new Marxist historian. First, this camp historians emphasized historical material causes, and on the history of science to law school yearbook (sientificrules) can view prominent in the production of modern social relations played a key role. They considered. Different people within production relations formed conflicting interests. Class distinction and through demonstrated; As a result of this conflict has always been hostile. They breed dissident. In specific cases it is a threat to the existing government; Social realities and sustained interaction between the ideological driving force of history is the driving force for change. Second, the new U.S. contribution to the social history of the history of concern will be public thinking, belief systems and the public to prove this belief system and a wide range of materials in kind. Focusing on the essence of traditional culture and the impact triggered a series of problems common native Americans as to what values? The extent to which class, ethnic and racial differences affect the norms and behaviour? Japan's three living and working class culture exploration. Has clearly revealed. At least until the 19th and 20th century long. Different ways of thinking and objectives, how to create the nation's disintegration. 19 century early American community to "Republican," (Republicani**) mean different understanding is a good illustration of this problem. Artisans who believe that it is free labor ideology. Or expressed in society rising capacity finished busines**en understand is the silence from the government and made some free lessons middle class women which is considered as a creation of a correctional citizenship call turns working class white women but it interpreted as they are struggling in poverty, and heavy labor and the horrors of slavery distinguish a freedom. This in turn triggered a series of related issues, such as the tendency of the value system of ordinary people? The system is class, race, sex (gender), ethnic background differences, residence different product, or these factors in varying degrees in some combination? In the mid-1970s to the 20th century, behaviori** theory and Marxist theory and innovative element of mutual integration. Contributed to the working class cultural studies. And make it a social history of marriage. At the same time. Emergence of a new research direction, trying to explain the history of working class culture is affecting the changes. Historians take the position in this controversy. In fact depends on their cultural differences have causes. Some people think. Cultural lessons of the masses is the dominant ideology and form; Some people think that culture is from personal experience from working and living. After considerable debate and research results and asses**ents, the new social historians at least a consensus that the semi-independent and distinct characteristics of a culture of the various groups were given a certain degree of civil independent foundation. Since that working class has its own unique culture. Namely, a separation of cultures. It is how to be strengthened and renewed? Answer the same question today. Some explanation from the culture itself actually building controversy. For example. Eugene Jiniweise (EugenenGenovese) summed up the South American plantation slavery in the patriarchal culture --- warmth, culture. In his view, African American slaves. Including their ability to resist the slave system. Only as a part of the South plantation culture. To be the best explanation. Which is also part of the cultural identity of such slaves. Gateman (HerbertGutman) and some other historians think. Deep African roots and family. Coupled with the brutal oppression of slavery factors so that the slave formed its own unique behavioural patterns and values. In the working class culture studies, the impact of Marxist historian historian at least three contributions. First. Opened up new areas of historical research on the social and material reality, between individual and collective sense of the complicated relationship between the research finished second. They use various methods of authentication ****ysis reveals the awareness of ordinary people. Of course the main way is through language, sexuality and religious fixed symbol ****ysis; Third. On the relationship between social identity and social action of the Focus. Opened for "cultural" nature, how to spot and positioning of this culture and its impact on the long-term political debate. Second, the study of the history of the United States population. Social historians through May 3 life structure and social life of the structure cyclical changes. Demographic changes and population movements to discover (migration) nature. This requires the collection and interpretation of quantitative information. Determine the location of people had been living, family and community regulations and D forms, and it is a matter of when. Why relocation. Other historians of science such as P and Church institutionalized structure exploration. They posed the question as a social control agent. As a cultural heritage and traditional values one mechani**. These institutions can play a role. For example, Weir (RobertWell) study of the history of the United States population, family planning is designed to indicate the change and personal life cycle D can be interpreted as historical changes in the society D ceremony. These historians believe that the family history, ethnic origin, age of family members for understanding social change macro issues people play their own role to provide important clues. 3. Social mobility study. It is the 20th century history of the 1960s American academics most popular one study, the purpose is to investigate the "American dream" vitality. This area of concern is : First, the United States "upward social mobility" (upxardmobility) is to a large extent by deification; Secondly, it is reasonable to reflect the migrants and their descendants to the social and economic progress. In more macro issues of particular concern to ordinary people and researchers also industrialization and the interaction between technical change. These studies show that technology is a greater part of the social structure, the structure of technology in the development, and in turn support the structure. In a broader level, social historians concerned that the social impact of emerging technologies at the community building and community development is the process of how ordinary people involved in these changes; "No off" of the "modern" of the "industrialization" of these terms not only with abstract process and more people involved with the new environment of mutual friction between the concrete (abrasivein remuneration teraction). These problems require social historians to explain : When new production technology and traditional values and norms collisions, traditional culture will have any change? It was felt that : the working class is to resist such changes; It was stressed that certain special groups are considered to be a technology and industrial liberation forces, which caused changes in general would be useful. Some people believe that the end of World War II, the development of technology, such as film, television, radio tends to the United nations more unity rather than division. 4. The process of urbanization and its consequences study. In this regard, scholars concerns include : urbanization will inevitably bring about the collapse of social order, as well as the increase in poverty and crime? Its impact on different classes and ethnic groups are the same? How the environmental effects of urban lifestyles? Jackson (KenethJack remuneration son) study showed that the "American dream" and the presence of strong interactions between suburbanization. He studied the history of the United States and suburbanization that the typical American lifestyle is the result of two factors, namely, government policies and the tendency of Americans to enjoy independent living. Urbanization study drawn certain conclusions : urban poverty and family disintegration is not the result of the collapse of urban overcrowding and communities; Violence and there is no automatic link between urban development. In addition, the study of urban history also directly with the United States "upward social mobility" link, and to provide adequate first-hand information. 5, the ethnic studies. Then the United States, ethnic groups, gender, age group have become the standard of social division. The study of ethnic cohesion 1:10 flourish. Its research focuses on the traditional "no words silently" lower social groups, including ethnic identity became the focus of the new social history research. Ethnic identity within a group shared values and system agencies combined. The purpose of the study is that ethnic groups with the possibility of greater power structures coexist. For the typical American immigration countries, such research is to the American society groups --- Native Americans (Indians), Caucasian (white European), African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian culture one way forward is undoubtedly positive. Moreover, if further detailed, the new social history nor ignore certain "micro" areas of social behaviour, such as mental illness history, criminal history, medical social history, religious history, entertainment history. These concerns life history, and contemporary American society is to link the discovery and measurement of American society as a sound method. New social contribution is also shown in the history of the development of historical concepts. The new social historians in the historical study of the historical development of a new source. To challenge the traditional historical research. They believe that they accurately reveal "American thinking." Rely on political leaders and the intellectual elite language material is simply not enough; Nation "and" the general requirements of a more diversified background and the need for collective mentality found new ways, the historical scope has undergone tremendous changes. For example, a worker's speech or correspondence, the parties or witnesses to the oral history, trade unions assembly records; Migrants press; Labour class oral history were regarded as valuable first-hand materials. The lower relative lack of socio-cultural information to the letter. Historians will ****yse the attention of ordinary people "act", and use them as a research information, such as demonstrations, riots, protest demonstrations, ceremonies, celebrations, and other voting groups. In addition, attention to the direction of the movement of ordinary people, food structure, consumption and savings habits, family planning D. Through these symbolic external features ****ysis. And the rational and irrational behaviour ****ysis to explain the values and preferences of different groups to find motivation and behaviour. Most of the new social history of innovative local, research methodology breakthrough. Researchers who use the measurement methods and quantify materials, such as the Humane Society of the report, detailed local records, census results, timetables, city guides, tax records to track the life history of ordinary people. Marxist historiography of the tendency of research Fukesai Jinuoweisai most typical. Her in the "family of plantations, old black and white women in the South," a book critical of the United States "interests consistent history," and focus on the study of "nature" above. In her view. "sex" is not only a social context. Determine the social status of women in the South is also an important factor. As a key. She studies "of the relationship between" "sexual roles" and "sexual identity." Them. "sexual relations" is the most important factor. Because it "build a society based on any. And is the core of any one individual self-awareness. Note any individual because of sexual relations with other members of society the most fundamental relationship between "[2] (29-41). This book is also manifest in the new social history research methodological characteristics. First. Is the point of historical research. She put the South as an alternative society. The study of women as their target. And the micro - "family" as the fundamental unit of society. From the community to "the bottom" to describe the old South American society overall picture scroll. Secondly, the use of materials and methods described. For the reconstruction of the lives of women in the South before the civil war. She from multiple angles. Using different types of information rich, in-depth excavation of family life. And on this basis the South revealed the social fabric of society. In the study, she mainly on the South female white slave-owner family diary, population records, census reports. Death records, economic and business records, diaries, family instruments and communications. And so on. Third, the new social history has been wrong many historians believe that it does not contribute to understanding of cultural, political life, social change structure. In addition, the new long-term changes in social history major concern. The result is a social history static. Hindered understanding of the dynamics of macro-history and interpretation. In addition, because of political history can not completely rule out the possibility that the claim "excluded" political social history will be a real social history. Some historians doubt the existence of a really "totally exclude political history." Times grams (CarlL.Becker) pointed out sharply that "the preparation of the political history of social exclusion is a mistake : : I absolutely can not understand why the non-political social areas. "Whether American society ethnic social groups, sex, occupation, class --- how many, Whatever their thinking and behavior to differ, regardless of their political thinking how detached upper, which will inevitably reflect their era's political influence. In the study of social groups and ideological competition between continuing the process can not be divorced from national political issues effectively reveal the nature. Therefore, the new social history study of the history of political thought at the outset to have a direct impact. New social history theory and methods, so that social historians interested in American history has some major political events and key figures, and thus the well-known history of the United States political institutions and systems. As a result, politicians (state**en), the word was discarded and replaced by "politicians" (politicians), citizens (citizens) by the word voters (voters) replaced. Political history in the eyes of the new social history, but for politicians to manipulate voters in the power and status of the Unit Head on the game records, thereby significantly reducing the value of political history. New social history research methods for quantitative ****ysis of the complete exclusion of qualitative ****ysis, qualitative ****ysis of the available original thematic and historical limitations in the framework of quantitative ****ysis, historical research resulting in the narrow and depreciation. Whereas traditional methods described history is lost history readability living memory. In addition, under the symbols too heavy, and thus the ****ysis of behaviour and relations motivated by some historians methods critici**. It revealed that only a "static" D-type. Attention is the "interruption." And historical research should be the core of the historical change and continuity. On the type of data, have also been biased. Many traditionally considered important and crucial data, such as the Constitution, laws, judicial decisions and debate, comments, papers and other historical materials of the value of the importance of social historians, and civil and private transcripts value is far better than the official and official information. Is the most obvious negative impact. American historical research emerged collapsed state. Blacks, workers, women, members of the public, farmers, migrants, independent of these special youth groups. Gradually established its own area. Published its academic publications. Held their meetings in the histories of the debate. History of research in terms of social institutions, or from the research theory, can form a center. As a result, in the meantime, no one dominant school of thought

求关于社会化的英文材料，越多越好

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社会化 Socialization

The term socialization is used by sociologists, social psychologists and educationalists to refer to the process of learning one’s culture and how to live within it. For the individual it provides the resources necessary for acting and participating within their society. For the society, inducting all individual members into its moral norms, attitudes, values, motives, social roles, language and symbols is the ‘means by which social and cultural continuity are attained’ (Clausen 1968: 5).

Socialization

Clausen claim that theories of socialization are to be found in Plato, Montaigne and Rousseau and he identifies a dictionary entry from 1828 that defines ‘socialize’ as ‘to render social, to make fit for living in society’ (1968: 20-1). However it was the response to a translation of a paper by George Simmel that brought the term and the idea of acquiring social norms and values into the writing of American sociologists F. P. Giddings and E. A. Ross in the 1890s. In the 1920s the theme of socialization was taken up by Chicago sociologists, including Ernest Burgess, and the process of learning how to be a member of society was explored in the work of Charles Cooley, W. I. Thomas and George Mead. Clausen goes on to track the way the concept was incorporated into various branches of psychology and anthropology (1968: 31-52).

Based on the joint study of Shanta and Narayan, Nepal Institute of Health Science

In the middle of the twentieth century socialization was a key idea in the dominant American functionalist tradition of sociology. Talcott Parsons (Parsons and Bales 1956) and a group of colleagues in the US developed a comprehensive theory of society that responded to the emergence of modernity in which the concept of socialization was a central component. One of their interests was to try to understand the relationship between the individual and society – a distinctive theme in US sociology since the end of the nineteenth century. Ely Chinoy, in a 1960s standard textbook on sociology, says that socialization serves two major functions:

On the one hand, it prepares the individual for the roles he is to play, providing him with the necessary repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge. On the other hand, by communicating the contents of culture from one generation to the other, it provides for its persistence and continuity. (Chinoy, 1961: 75)

For many reasons – not least his excessive approval of modern American life as the model social system and his inability to see how gender, race and class divisions discriminated against individuals in ways that were unjustifiable – Parsonian functionali** faded in popularity in the 1970s. Reacting to the functionalist notion of socialization English sociologist Graham White, writing in 1977 said:

… it is no longer enough to focus on the malleability and passivity of the individual in the face of all powerful social influences. Without some idea about the individual’s own activity in shaping his social experience our perspective of socialisation becomes distorted. (White 1977: 5).

During the last quarter of the twentieth century the concept of ‘socialization’ has been much less central to debates in sociology that have shifted their focus from identifying the functions of institutions and systems to describing the cultural changes of postmodernity. But the idea of socialization has lived on, particularly in debates about the family and education. The institutions of the family or the school are often blamed for their failure to socialize individuals who go on to transgress social norms. On the other hand, it is through a critique of functionalist ideas about socialization that there has been an increasing acceptance of a variety of family forms, of gender roles and an increasing tolerance of variations in the ways people express their social identity.

Forms of socialization

Sociologists may distinguish six kinds of socialization:

Reverse socialization

Developmental socialization

Primary socialization

Secondary socialization

Anticipatory socialization

Resocialization

Primary socialization Primary socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to individuals as members of a particular culture.

For example if a child saw their mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behaviour is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups.

Secondary socialization Secondary socialization refers to process of learning what is appropriate behavior as a member of a **aller group within the larger society. It is usually associated with teenagers and *****s, and involves **aller changes than those occurring in primary socialization. eg. entering a new profession, relocating to a new environment or society.

Developmental socialization Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution or developing your social skills.

Anticipatory socialization Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships.

Resocialization Resocialization refers to the process of discarding former behavior patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle (Schaefer Lamm, 1992: 113). Resocialization can be an intense experience, with the individual experiencing a sharp break with their past, and needing to learn and be exposed to radically different norms and values. An example might be the experience of a young man or woman leaving home to join the military.

Agents of Socialization

Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behavior. (Henslin, 2006)

The Family. Family is responsible for, among other things, determining one's attitudes toward religion and establishing career goals.

The School. The school is the agency responsible for socializing groups of young people in particular skills and values in society.

Peer groups. Peers refer to people who are roughly the same age and/or who share other social characteristics (e.g., students in a college class).

The Mass Media.

Other Agents: Religion, Work Place, The State.

Media and socialization

Theorists like Parsons and textbook writers like Ely Chinoy (1960) and Harry M. Johnson (1961) recognised that socialization didn’t stop when childhood ended. They realized that socialization continued in *****hood, but they treated it as a form of specialised education. Johnson (1961), for example, wrote about the importance of inculcating members of the US Coastguard with a set of values to do with responding to commands and acting in unison without question.

Later scholars accused these theorists of socialization of not recognising the importance of the mass media which, by the middle of the twentieth century were becoming more significant as a social force. There was concern about the link between television and the education and socialization of children – it continues today – but when it came to *****s, the mass media were regarded merely as sources of information and entertainment rather than moulders of personality. According to these scholars, they were wrong to overlook the importance of mass media in continuing to tran**it the culture to ***** members of society.[citation needed]

In the middle of the twentieth century the pace of cultural change was accelerating, yet Parsons and others wrote of culture as something stable into which children needed to be introduced but which *****s could simply live within. As members of society we need to continually refresh our ‘repertoire of habits, beliefs, and values, the appropriate patterns of emotional response and the modes of perception, the requisite skills and knowledge’ as Chinoy (1961: 75) put it.

Some sociologists and theorists of culture have recognised the power of mass communication as a socialization device. Dennis McQuail recognises the argument:

… the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behaviour as represented in the media. An alternative view is that it is a learning process whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations which go with a given role or status in society. Thus the media are continually offering pictures of life and models of behaviour in advance of actual experience. (McQuail 2005: 494)

Total institutions

The term "total institutions" was coined in 1963 by Erving Goffman, designed to describe a society which is socially isolated but still provides for all the needs of its members. Therefore, total institutions have the ability to resocialize people either voluntarily or involuntarily. For example, the following would be considered as total institutions: prisons, the military, mental hospitals and convents (Schaefer Lamm, 1992: 113).

Goffman lists four characteristics of such institutions:

All aspects of life are conducted in the same place and under the same single authority.

Each phase of a members daily activity is carried out in the immediate company of others. All members are treated alike and all members do the same thing together.

Daily activities are tightly scheduled. All activity is superimposed upon the individual by a system of explicit formal rules.

A single rational plan exists to fulfill the goals of the institution...

Gender socialization and gender roles

Henslin (1999:76) contends that "an important part of socialization is the learning of culturally defined gender roles." Gender socialization refers to the learning of behavior and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex. Boys learn to be boys and girls learn to be girls. This "learning" happens by way of many different agents of socialization. The family is certainly important in reinforcing gender roles, but so are one’s friends, school, work and the mass media. Gender roles are reinforced through "countless subtle and not so subtle ways" (1999:76).

Resocialization

Resocialization is a sociological concept dealing with the process of mentally and emotionally "re-training" a person so that he or she can operate in an environment other than that which he or she is accustomed to. Resocialization into a total institution involves a complete change of personality. Key examples include the process of resocializing new recruits into the military so that they can operate as soldiers (or, in other words, as members of a cohesive unit) and the reverse process, in which those who have become accustomed to such roles return to society after military discharge.

resocialization

Socialization for animal species

The process of intentional socialization is central to training animals to be kept by humans in close relationship with the human environment, including pets and working dogs.

Ferality

Feral animals can be socialized with varying degrees of success. Feral children are children who lack socially accepted communication skills. Reports of feral children, such as those cited by Kingsley Davis, have largely been shown to be exaggerations, or complete fabrications, with regards to the specific lack of particular skills; for example, bipedali**.

Cats

For example, the cat returns readily to a feral state if it has not been socialized properly in its young life. A feral cat usually acts defensively. People often unknowingly own one and think it is merely "unfriendly."

These cats, if left to proliferate, often become "pests" in populated neighborhoods by decimating the bird population and digging up people's yards. Feral cats are sometimes helpful when used in agriculture to keep rodent and snake populations down. Such cats are often referred to as "barn" cats.

Socializing cats older than six months can be very difficult. It is often said that they cannot be socialized. This is not true, but the process takes two to four years of diligent food bribes and handling, and mostly on the cat's terms. Eventually the cat may be persuaded to be comfortable with humans and the indoor environment.

Kittens learn to be feral either from their mothers or through bad experiences. They are more easily socialized when under six months of age. Socializing is done by keeping them confined in a **all room (ie. bathroom) and handling them for 3 or more hours each day. There are three primary methods for socialization, used individually or in combination. The first method is to simply hold and pet the cat, so it learns that such activities are not uncomfortable. The second is to use food bribes. The final method is to distract the cat with toys while handling them. The cat may then be gradually introduced to larger spaces. It is not recommended to let the cat back outside because that may cause it to revert to its feral state. The process of socialization often takes three weeks to three months for a kitten.

Animal shelters either foster feral kittens to be socialized or kill them outright. The feral *****s are usually killed or euthanized, due to the large time commitment, but some shelters and vets will spay or neuter and vaccinate a feral cat and then return it to the wild.

Dogs

In domesticated dogs, the process of socialization begins even before the puppy's eyes open. Socialization refers to both its ability to interact acceptably with humans and its understanding of how to communicate successfully with other dogs. If the mother is fearful of humans or of her environment, she can pass along this fear to her puppies. For most dogs, however, a mother who interacts well with humans is the best teacher that the puppies can have. In addition, puppies learn how to interact with other dogs by their interaction with their mother and with other ***** dogs in the house.

A mother's attitude and tolerance of her puppies will change as they grow older and become more active. For this reason most experts today recommend leaving puppies with their mother until at least 8 to 10 weeks of age. This gives them a chance to experience a variety of interactions with their mother, and to observe her behavior in a range of situations.

It is critical that human interaction takes place frequently and calmly from the time the puppies are born, from simple, gentle handling to the mere presence of humans in the vicinity of the puppies, performing everyday tasks and activities. As the puppies grow older, socialization occurs more readily the more frequently they are exposed to other dogs, other people, and other situations. Dogs who are well socialized from birth, with both dogs and other species (especially people) are much less likely to be aggressive or to suffer from fear-biting.

References

Chinoy, Ely (1961) Society: An Introduction to Sociology, New York: Random House.

Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and Company.

Johnson, Harry M. (1961) Sociology: A Systematic Introduction, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

McQuail, Dennis (2005) McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory: Fifth Edition, London: Sage.

Parsons, Talcott and Bales, Robert (1956) Family, Socialization and Interaction Process, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

White, Graham (1977) Socialisation, London: Longman.

Michael Paul Rhode, Smithsonian Dep. of Anthropology

See also

Internalization

Reciprocal socialization

Social construction

structure and agency

社会化是一个社会学、社会心理学与教育学上的名词，指学习所处文化，并逐渐适应於其中的过程。对个人来说，社会化是学习同时扮演社会上不同的角色的过程。个人社会化会受到地区文化的影响，因个人的成长背景，社会化的过程、内容也会随之改变。