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是为了考研的长难句翻译？

1、he believes that this very difficulty may have had the compensating advantage of forcing him to think long and intently about every sentence, and thus enabling him to detect errors in reasoning and in his own observations.

2、He asserted, also, that his power to follow a long and purely abstract train of thought was very limited, for which reason he felt certain that he never could have succeeded with mathematics.

3、On the other hand, he did not accept as well founded the charge made by some of his critics that, while he was a good observer, he had no power of reasoning.

4、He adds humbly that perhaps he was superior to the common run of men in noticing things which easily escape attention, and in observing them carefully.

5、 Darwin was convinced that the loss of these tastes was not only a loss of happiness, but might possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character.

6、For example, they do not compensate for gross social inequality, and thus do not tell how able an underprivileged youngster might have been had he grown up under more favorable circumstances.

7、In general,the tests work most effectivelv when the qualities to be measured can be most precisely defined and least effectively when what is to be messured or predicted cannot be well defined.

8、How well the predictions will be validated by later performance depends upon the amount , reliability , and appropriateness of the information used and on the skill and wisdom with which it is interpreted.

9、The target is wrong, for in attacking the tests, critics divert attention form the fault that lies with ill-informed or incompetent users.

10、Over the years, tools and technology themselves as a source of fundamental innovation have largely been ignored by historians and philosophers of science.

11、Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and

tools.

12、"In short" , a leader of the new school contends, "the scientific revolution, as we call it, was largely the improvement and invention and use of a series of instruments that expanded the reach of science in innumerable directions. "

13、 Galileo' s greatest glory was that in 1609 he was the first person to turn the newly invented telescope on the heavens to prove that the planets revolve around the sun rather than around the Earth.

14、Whether the Govemment should increase the financing of pure science at the expense of technology or vice ver- sa (反之) often depends on the issue of which is seen as the driving force.

15、The method of scientific investigation is nothing but the expression of the necessary mode of working of the human mind; it is simply the mode by which all phenomena are reasoned about and given precise and exact expianation.

16、 It is not that the scales in the one case, and the balance in the other, differ in the principles of their construction or manner of working; but that the latter is a much finer apparatus and of course much more accurate in its measurement than the former.

17、 You have all heard it repeated that men of science work by means of induction (归纳法) and deduction, that by the help of these operations, they, in a sort of sense, manage to extract from Nature certain natural laws, and that out of these, by some special skill of their own, they buiLd up their theories.

18、And it is imagined by many that the operations of the common mind can be by no means compared with these processes, and that they have to be acquired by a sort of special training.

19、Plobably there is not one here who has not in the course of the day had occasion to set in motion a complex train of reasoning, of the very same kind, though differing in degree,as that which a scientific man goes through in tracing the causes of natural phenomena.

20、There is more agreement on the kinds of behavior refeued to by the term than there is on how to interpret or classify them.

21、To criticise it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticising a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity .

22、Now since the asses**ent of intelligence is a comparative matter we must be sure that the scale with which we are comparing our subjects provides a 'valid' or 'fair' comparison.

23、The first two must be equal for all who are being compared , if any comparison in terms of intelligence is to be made.

24、On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the other with whom

he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed .

25、The supply of oil can be shut off unexpectedly at any time, and in any case, the oil wells will all run dry in thirty years or so at the present rate of use.

26、New sources of energy must be found, and this will take time, but it is not likely to result in any situation that will ever restore that sense of cheap and plentiful energy we have had in

the times past.

27、 The food supply will not increase nearly enoueh to match this, which means that we are heading into a crisis in the matter of producing and marketing food.

28、This will be particularly true since energy pinch will make it difficult to continue agriculture in the high-energy American

fashion that makes it possible to combine few farmers with high yields.

29、Until such time as mankind has the sense to lower its pupulation to the point where the planet can provide a comfortable support for all,people will have to accept more "unnatural food" .

30、Traditionally, legal learning has been viewed in such institutions as the special preserve of lawyers rather than a necessary part of the intellectual equipment of an educated person.

31、On the other, it links these concepts to everyday realities in a manner which is parallel to the links journalists forge on a daily basis as they cover and comment on the news.

32、But the idea that the journalist must understand the law more profoundly than an ordinary citizen rests on an understanding of the established conventions and special responsibilities of the news media.

33、In fact, it is difficult to see how journalists who do not have a clear preps of the basic features of the Canadian Constitution can do a competent job on political stories.

34、While comment and reaction from lawyers may enhance stories, it is preferable for journalists to rely on their own notions of significance and make their own judgments.

35、His function is ****ogous to that of a judge, who must accept the obligation of revealing in as obvious a matter as possible the course of reasoning which led him to his decision.

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无名的裘德的英文评论

Romantici**' in Jude the Obscure

"In the face of a changing, and therefore an unfamiliar world, Hardy needed Romantici** as a touchstone, as a key to a formely golden age. But in Jude,with its bleakness and desolation, Hardy shows the growing gap between Romantici** and reality."

Abstract:

The following article is taken from my MA thesis, entitled Hardy and the Romantics, and follows directy on from the article about The Woodlanders, which appeared in the previous issue of Deep South (volume three, number three). In this current article, on Hardy's final novel Jude the Obscure (1896), I identify the Shelleyan influences present in the novel, which are most apparent in the characters of Jude Fawley and Sue Bridehead.

The aim of my thesis is to identify Hardy's Romantic vision, a vision which becomes increasingly darker in his later novels, Jude included. So in Jude there seems to be no hope for the Romantic Jude to survive in what seems such an anti-Romantic world. In my thesis I establish an opposition between Romantici**, associated with tradition and a "golden age," and Darwini**, representative of modernisation, progress, and the absence of an immanent God. In Jude, unlike in Hardy's earlier novels, Darwini** is the dominant mode, with Romantici** seen by Hardy as untenable in the modernising world in which Hardy (and Jude) lived.

Introduction

Jude the Obscure intensifies the despair of the previous novel I have discussed, The Woodlanders, in that in this later novel there is no hope for the happiness of Jude Fawley, or his cousin, Sue Bridehead. Their Romantic ideals are so strongly inherent in their personalities, and so antithetical to their society, that they are better off dead than living in this world. But unlike The Woodlanders, whose tone is one of sad, quiet, lament for the passing of the traditional rural ways, the tone of Jude is much darker, more bitter and cynical, and expresses a far more tragic vision: one of the novel's strongest motifs is voiced by Sue who comments, "'it seems such a terribly tragic thing to bring beings into the world'" (V vii 328). In Jude, Hardy exposes more strongly than ever the impracticalities and dangers of Romantici** (the gruesome deaths of Jude's children bears testimony to the force of Hardy's vision) in modern society.

It is necessary, first of all, to distinguish between Hardy's attitude to Jude's Romantici** and Jude's Romantici** itself. As always, Hardy was divided between his realisation that Romantici** could not exist in a universe which was so strongly Darwinian, and his indignant protest that Jude's vision ought to be true. In other words, Hardy the humanist is sympathetic towards Jude's futile fate, but Hardy the realist is aware that Jude's inability to adapt to the requirements of Darwini** means that he will not survive long in this world. In Jude, then, Hardy combines the realistic strand (that Jude will not succeed) with the Romantic strand (that Jude ought to succeed). The result is a novel which largely fits a tragic mode, not only because of its plot, but also because of Hardy's obvious pity for Jude's suffering. This sympathy is perhaps more acute than it might have otherwise been, because in creating Jude as a stonemason and church restorer aspiring to academia, Hardy is paralleling his own life and profession: he began as an architect with an interest in church restoration, and aspired to be a writer.

Hardy creates Jude as a Romantic idealist. But both objects of Jude's idealisation (Christminster, which stands for Oxford, and his cousin and lover, Sue Bridehead) disappoint him in their failure to live up to his unrealistic expectations. So the novel could be read as a negative Bildungsroman, in which Jude learns that his Romantici** is quite mistaken and that he is better off dead than trying to live in a world so opposed to his ideals. Hardy's patterning of allusions reinforces this descent from ideali** to confounded reality: in the early stages of his life, Wordsworthian allusions surround the Romantic Jude; but the later stages of his life, in which he is beginning to see how futile his Romantic hopes were, are accompanied with references to Job (the Old Testament figure who was afflicted despite his innocence).

Hardy's aesthetic and vision expressed in Jude take much from Wordsworth and Shelley, although in this article I will consider only the influence of Shelley. Hardy's use of Shelley is most obvious in the character of Sue, who is based on the ethereal woman of Shelley's poems such as "Epipsychidion." Sue's views of marriage are also borrowed, almost directly, from Shelley's views. But in the character of Jude, Romantic characteristics are also abundant. Jude has a strong imagination, and he idealises rather than sees his "loves" as they are. Another characteristic is Jude's desire to transcend this bleak, real world and live on in an ideal realm. Romantic poets sought such transcendence in their poems. For example, in "Tintern Abbey" Wordsworth accomplishes transcendence by achieving a union with God and nature, experiencing in nature,

... a sense sublime

Of something far more deeply interfused ...

A motion and a spirit, that impels

All thinking things, all objects of all thought,

And rolls through all things. (ll. 96-103)

So Wordsworth (and Coleridge) found the ideal in the landscape (i.e. the real). Second generation Romantics strove equally hard for transcendence (an obvious example being Keats' attempt in "Ode to a Nightingale"), but they were unable to find the ideal in this world, and nor could they transcend to an ideal realm, because to transcend this world meant death. To the second generation, then, the ideal was utterly unachievable. Jude is like Shelley, one of the second generation of Romantics, because Jude does not transcend this real world; and like Shelley and Keats, who find it difficult to accept the real world the way it is (see for example "Adonais," "The Triumph of Life," and "Hymn to Intellectual Beauty"), neither can Jude: Jude attempts to merge the real with the ideal. But his attempts at discovering the ideal necessarily fail: real and ideal cannot co-exist in the way Jude hopes.

So Hardy presents Romantici** as an unachievable ideal in this modern society. He constructs an imaginative ideal, but does so in order to show that it is not feasible in Jude's (or in Hardy's) society. In the face of a changing, and therefore an unfamiliar world, Hardy needed Romantici** as a touchstone, as a key to a formerly golden age. But in Jude, with its bleakness and desolation, Hardy shows the growing gap between Romantici** and reality.

Jude the Idealist

In Jude, Hardy unequivocally shows that Jude's Romantici** is destructive because it distorts his vision of reality, ensuring that he acts neither rationally nor practically. But Jude gains Hardy's sympathy for his resilience in the face of continual disappointment, and for his enthusia** to keep trying to recapture his ideals. In his useful article entitled "Compromised Romantici** in Jude the Obscure," Michael Hassett argues that Jude's Romantic quest is ultimately unachievable because Jude and Sue "repeatedly create imaginative substitutes for reality, but their Romantici** is compromised in practical application" (Hassett 432). Hardy's patterning of allusions, beginning with an abundance of Wordsworthian parallels and ending with references to Job, shows the pattern of Jude's decline, until, with the final flourish of Job quotations (while Jude is on his death bed), he gains some awareness of the follies of his early ideali**. As with Hardy's previous idealising characters, Jude is modelled on the Shelleyan idealist and the most strongly Shelleyan aspects of Jude's character (which I will now discuss) are as follows: the strength of Jude's imagination; his ideali**; and his (partially) Shelleyan relationship with Sue.

From the opening pages of the novel Hardy shows us that not only does Jude have a strong imagination, but that there is a disparity between his imaginative world and the real world. Michael Hassett argues that Jude seeks a "limited, concrete, embodiment ... of his ideals" and in so doing he "thinks he reconstitutes the world, while in fact he only creates substitutes, and reality remains intractable" (Hassett 433). This is certainly the case with Jude's first "vision" of Christminster, when Jude sees it illuminated with topaz lights after a mist has risen. This vision of Christminster is an illusion, much like the illusion Wordsworth experiences after stealing the boat in Book one of The Prelude, at which time he imagines that the looming mountains "Strode after me" (1850 l. 385). Days later, Wordsworth still sees "huge and mighty forms, that do not live / Like living men" (1850 ll. 398-99). Jude also "sees" the large looming shapes that Wordsworth saw: he "started homewards at a run, trying not to think of giants, Herne the Hunter, Apollyon lying in wait for Christian, or the captain with the bleeding hole in his forehead and the corpses round him that remutinied every night on board the bewitched ship" (I iii 17).

It is clear, then, that it is not something intrinsic in Christminster that makes Jude see it the way he does. He has a need to find beauty and hope, and because there are neither in this post-Romantic society, Jude fabricates them. Hardy makes this fabrication clear in the following comment: "He suddenly grew older. It had been the yearning of his heart to find something to anchor on, to cling to; for some place which he could call admirable" (I iii 21). That Hardy refers to Jude's imaginative construction of Christminster as a dream, and Jude as a dreamer, further confirms the falsity of his vision. The pig's pizzle landing at Jude's feet "mingled with his dreams" (I vi 35); Christminster is thought of "in his days of dreaming" (II i 78); Shaston is "the city of a dream" (IV i 209). On several occasions Jude "wakes up from his dream," such as when Arabella tells him that she is not pregnant (I ix 58) and again when he becomes aware of what Christminster is really like (II vi 118-19). At Shaston Sue calls Jude "'Joseph the dreamer of dreams'" (IV i 215), and when Jude suggests that they educate Father Time with a view to the university, Sue cries di**issively, "'O you dreamer!'" (V iii 292). Dreaming, an activity so important in Romantic literature, is reduced to scorned fantasy here.

The strength of Jude's imagination is Romantic: but what is un-Romantic about his imagination is that it is unfounded in reality. The Romantics, particularly the first generation, generally sought the reality of an experience, and based their poetry on common life, while "throw[ing] over [such incidents] a certain colouring of imagination, whereby ordinary things should be presented to the mind in an unusual way" (my emphasis. The passage is from Wordsworth's "Preface" to his Lyrical Ballads). Their quest was idealising, but only because they discovered in reality its Platonic archetype, something a pre-Darwinian, broadly theocentric world view allowed.

Jude's character is Romantic rather than Darwinian, which is why he cannot survive in this age. He is sensitive to nature, in a way out of place in this Darwinian society:

He had never brought home a nest of young birds without lying awake in misery half the night after, and often reinstating them and the nest in their original place the next morning. He could scarcely bear to see trees cut down or lopped, from a fancy that it hurt them; and late pruning, when the sap was up, and the tree bled profusely, had been a positive grief to him in his infancy. (I ii 11)

And Hardy prophesies in these very early pages that Jude's life will not be happy: "he was the sort of man who was born to ache a good deal before the fall of the curtain upon his unnecessary life" (I ii 11). This bleak prophecy is accurate: because Darwini** has become the dominant force in Jude's society, only the strong will survive -- and Jude is not one of the strong.

As I have argued, Hardy undercuts Jude's utterly naive belief that his Romantic ideals will succeed several times in the novel. Yet Jude cannot, or will not, learn, despite receiving moments of insight, which he chooses to ignore. The first illuminating moment comes after Dr Vilbert forgets to bring Jude the Greek and Latin grammars he wants. But Jude does not abandon his hopes of learning; rather, he sends to Mr Phillotson for his grammars. But Latin and Greek are not as he had expected, and the narrator exclaims (mirroring Jude's real distress), "This was Latin and Greek, then, was it; this grand delusion! The charm he had supposed in store for him was really a labour like that of Israel in Egypt" (I iv 26). Hardy claims that someone walking past might have been able to restore Jude's spirits, but (anticipating the twentieth-century moderni** of the likes of Samuel Beckett) "nobody did come, because nobody does; and under the crushing recognition of his gigantic error Jude continued to wish himself out of the world" (I iv 27).

Despite the setback, Jude gets on with Latin and Greek. But he is soon interested in another pursuit: the courtship of Arabella. At their first meeting, he is granted a moment of illumination as to Arabella's character, when she throws the pig's pizzle:

It had been no vestal who chose that missile for opening her attack on him. He saw this with his intellectual eye, just for a short fleeting while, as by the light of a falling lamp one might momentarily see an inscription on a wall before being enshrouded in darkness. And then this passing discriminative power was withdrawn. (I vi 39)

So Jude's ability to see Arabella for what she is is over in a moment, and she becomes shrouded, once again, in his idealised visions.

The disparity between the imagined and the real continues after Jude's arrival in Christminster, where he sees the imaginative glory fade into the "defective real" (II ii 84). The second disappointment in Christminster is in his re-acquaintance with Phillotson: Phillotson's lack of success "destroyed at one stroke the halo which had surrounded the schoolmaster's figure in Jude's imagination ever since their parting" (II iv 102). At times he wakes up from the dream world and gains real insights: "For a moment there fell on Jude a true illumination; that here in the stone yard was a centre of effort as worthy as that dignified by the name of scholarly study. ... But he lost it under stress of his old idea" (II ii 85). Jude also awakens to his sense of limitations. He can cite "the afternoon on which he awoke from his dream" (II vi 119), and he recognises that, "These struggling men and women before him were the reality of Christminster, though they knew little of Christ or Minster" (II vi 121). But under the duress of his desire to become a scholar, he makes no use of this illumination.

Throughout the novel Jude is continually transfixed by Christminster, and the pull of the city remains strong: Sue says to Arabella, "'Of course Christminster is a sort of fixed vision with him, which I suppose he'll never be cured of believing in. He still thinks it is a great centre of high and fearless thought, instead of what it is, a nest of commonplace schoolmasters whose characteristic is timid obsequiousness to tradition'" (V vii 329). Jude admits that despite Christminster's scorn towards them ("'it scorns our laboured acquisitions ... it sneers at our false quantities and mispronunciations'" -- V viii 337), "'it is the centre of the universe to me, because of my early dream: and nothing can alter it'" (V viii 337). It takes until the very end of the novel, and the end of his life, for Jude to begin to see Christminster as it really is. At this time he tells Arabella that the famous men of letters, graduates from Christminster, "'seem laughing at me!'" (VI ix 414). Jude's insight, though, is far too late to change anything, and he dies only a short time after coming to terms with the reality of Christminster.

Jude and Sue - the Influence of Shelley

Because Christminster never lives up to his expectations, particularly once he has moved there (in Book Two), Jude needs something new upon which to anchor his ideals, and he receives an almost epiphanic vision that Sue Bridehead, his cousin, is that something. This vision takes place while watching her in church, and "To an impressionable and lonely young man the consciousness of having at last found anchorage for his thoughts which promised to supply both social and spiritual possibilities, was like the dew of Hermon, and he remained throughout the service in a sustaining atmosphere of ecstasy" (II iii 93). Patricia Ingham's note to the Oxford edition explains that Hermon is "a high mountain referred to in the Old Testament, and sometimes said to be the scene of Jesus' transfiguration (Mark 9: 2-9). The suggestion seems to be that Jude is transformed" (notes, 437). Jude's initial vision of Sue paves the way for his relationship with her: he never sees her realistically, but always as a sort of spiritual touchstone. Michael Hassett realises this, suggesting that "Jude's initial conscious intention always seems the attainment of spiritual ideals, yet simultaneously there is a need for realistic form" (Hassett 435). So Jude wants both a spiritual and a physical relationship from Sue -- but Sue is only interested in giving the former.

Jude first sees Sue in a photograph, in which she is wearing "a broad hat with radiating folds under the brim like the rays of a halo" (II i 78) -- thus his first idea of her is of an angel. This is reinforced when he sees his cousin at work in what Jude thinks of as "A sweet, saintly, Christian business" (II ii 89). After this she remains an "ideal character" to Jude, "about whose form he began to weave curious and fantastic day-dreams" (II ii 90). Days later, "she was almost an ideality to him still" (II iv 99). After a chance meeting with her, at which neither of them speaks to the other, Jude is irrevocably obsessed with her: "From this moment the emotion which had been accumulating in his breast as the bottled-up effect of solitude and the poetized locality he dwelt in, insensibly began to precipitate itself on this half-visionary form" (II ii 90-91). The phrasing strongly suggests a similar passage in The Woodlanders, in which Fitzpiers tells Giles that "'people living insulated, as I do by the solitude of this place, get charged with emotive fluid like a Leyden jar with electric, for want of some conductor at hand to disperse it'" (The Woodlanders xvi 89). Grace is the "conductor" in Fitzpiers' experiment, in the same way that Sue is the agent for Jude's emotions. Hardy is more explicit, though, about love in the passage in The Woodlanders: Fitzpiers tells Giles that "Human love is a subjective thing ... I am in love with something in my own head, and no thing-in-itself outside it at all'" (The Woodlanders xvi 89). But ironically, it is the villainous Fitzpiers who obtains the love of both Grace and Felice, and ends up with Grace at the end; whereas Jude is tricked into marrying Arabella, whom he does not love, and is forced to wait a long time before being given Sue's love, and yet he still never gains happiness.

Just as Shelley was an important influence on Jude's character, so has he influenced Sue. Sue is continually seen as a spiritual rather than a physical woman, and in this way she is strongly connected to the ethereal ******e of Shelley's "Epipsychidion." In "Epipsychidion," Emily is a "spirit," a "vision," a "shadow," and something totally other than a bodily woman -- ironically, it is Emily's ethereality which means that Shelley cannot unite with her on earth. Hardy is also at pains to emphasise Sue's insubstantiality. Jude remembers that

有关爱情的英语和中文翻译

Love is a profound feeling of tender affection for or intense attraction to another. People in love are often considered to have "good" interpersonal chemistry.[1] Love is described as a deep, ineffable feeling shared in passionate or intimate interpersonal relationships. In different contexts, however, the word love has a variety of related but distinct meanings: in addition to romantic love, which is characterized by a mix of emotional and sexual desire, other forms include platonic love, religious love, familial love, and the more casual application of the term to anyone or anything that one considers strongly pleasurable, enjoyable, or desirable, including activities and foods. This diverse range of meanings in a single word is commonly contrasted with the plurality of Greek words for Love, reflecting the word's versatility and complexity.

Although clearly and consistently defining love is a difficult task, and often a subject of much debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't "love." As a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like), love is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more "pure" form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is commonly contrasted with friendship, though other definitions of the word love may be applied to close friendships in certain contexts

In ordinary use, love usually refers to interpersonal love, an experience felt by a person for another person. Love often involves caring for or identifying with a person or thing, including oneself (cf. narcissi**).

The concept of love, however, is subject to debate. Some deny the existence of love. Others call it a recently-invented abstraction, sometimes dating the "invention" to courtly Europe during or after the middle ages—though this is contradicted by the sizable body of ancient love poetry. Others maintain that love really exists, and is not an abstraction, but is undefinable, being a quantity which is spiritual or metaphysical in nature. Some psychologists maintain that love is the action of lending one's "boundary" or "self-esteem" to another. Others attempt to define love by applying the definition to everyday life.

Cultural differences make any universal definition of love difficult to establish. Expressions of love may include the love for a soul or mind, the love of laws and organizations, love for a body, love for nature, love of food, love of money, love for learning, love of power, love of fame, love for the respect of others, etc. Different people place varying degrees of importance on the kinds of love they receive. Love is essentially an abstract concept, easier to experience than to explain. Because of the complex and abstract nature of love, discourse on love is commonly reduced to a thought-terminating cliché, and there are a number of common proverbs regarding love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The Beatles' "All you need is love." Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to relative value.

Though love is considered a positive and desirable aspect of existence, love can cause a great deal of emotional harm. Consider Romeo and Juliet, Othello, Great Expectations, and other classical and popular works that enumerate how love can lead to tragedy and emotional pain. In human interactions, love becomes a peril when love is not bilateral, known as Unrequited love. A further peril for individuals that love, or can love others, is that love is not enduring and that many people have psychological defense mechani**s inhibit their ability to accept or reciprocate love.

Human bonding

Main article: Human bonding

People, throughout history, have often considered phenomena such as “love at first sight” or “instant friendships” to be the result of an uncontrollable force of attraction or affinity. One of the first to theorize in this direction was the Greek philosopher Empedocles who in the fourth century BC argued for existence of two forces: love (philia) and strife (neikos), which were used to account for the causes of motion in the universe. These two forces were said to intermingle with the four elements, i.e. earth, water, air, and fire, in such a manner that love, so to say, served as the binding power linking the various parts of existence harmoniously together.

Later, Plato interpreted Empedocles’ two agents as attraction and repulsion, stating that their operation is conceived in an alternate sequence.[2] From these arguments, Plato originated the concept of “likes attract”, e.g. earth is thus attracted towards earth, water toward water, and fire toward fire. In modern terms this is often phrased in terms of “birds of a feather flock together”. Later, following developments in electrical theories, such as Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, ****ogs in human life were developed such as "opposites attract." Over the last century, researcher on the nature of human mating, such as in evolutionary psychology, agree that pairs unite or attract to each other owing to a combination of opposites attract, e.g. people with dissimilar immune systems tend to attract, and likes attract, such similarities of personality, character, views, etc.[3] In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and or affinities.

Religious views

Main article: Love (religious views)

Love in early religions was a mixture of ecstatic devotion and ritualised obligation to idealised natural forces (pagan polythei**). Later religions shifted emphasis towards single abstractly-oriented objects like God, law, church and state (formalised monothei**).

A third view, panthei**, recognises a state or truth distinct from (and often antagonistic to) the idea that there is a difference between the worshipping subject and the worshipped object. Love is reality, of which we, moving through time, imperfectly interpret ourselves as an isolated part.

The Bible speaks of love as a set of attitudes and actions that are far broader than the concept of love as an emotional attachment. Love is seen as a set of behaviours that humankind is encouraged to act out. One is encouraged not just to love one's partner, or even one's friends but also to love one's enemies.

The Bible describes this type of active love in 1 Corinthians 13:4-8:

Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails.

Romantic love is also present in the Bible, particularly the Song of Songs (also known as Song of Solomon, Canticles.) Traditionally, this book has been interpreted allegorically as a picture of God's love for Israel and/or the Church. When taken naturally, we see a picture of ideal human marriage.

"Place me like a seal over your heart, like a seal on your arm; for love is as strong as death, its jealously unyielding as the grave. It burns like a blazing fire, like a mighty flame. [like the very flame of the LORD?] Many waters cannot quench love; rivers cannot wash it away. If one were to give all the wealth of his house for love, it would be utterly scorned." [8:6-7, NIV]

The passage dodi li v'ani lo ("my beloved is mine and I am my beloved," Song of Songs 2:16) is often engraved on wedding bands. [citation needed]

Cultural views

Main article: Love (cultural views)

Although there exist numerous cross-cultural unified similarities as to the nature and definition of love, as in there being a thread of commitment, tenderness, and passion common to all human existence, there are differences. For example, in India, with arranged marriages commonplace, it is believed that love is not a necessary ingredient in the initial stages of marriage – it is something that can be created during the marriage; whereas in Western culture, by comparison, love is seen as a necessary prerequisite to marriage.

Scientific views

Main article: Love (scientific views)

Throughout history, predominantly, philosophy and religion have speculated the most into the phenomenon of love. In the last century, the science of psychology has written a great deal on the subject. Recently, however, the sciences of evolutionary psychology, evolutionary biology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have begun to take centre stage in discussion as to the nature and function of love.

Biological models of sex tend to see it as a mammalian drive, just like hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Psychologist Robert Sternberg created his Triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: Intimacy, Commitment, and Passion. Intimacy is a form where two people can share secrets and various details of their personal lives. Intimacy is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment on the other hand is the expectation that the relationship is going to last forever. The last and most common form of love is simply sex, or passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. This led researchers such as Yela to further refine the model by separating Passion into two independents components: Erotic Passion and Romantic Passion.

爱是一种发乎人内心的情感，在中文里有著很多解释，由某种事物给予人少许满足(如我爱进食这些食物)至为了爱某些东西而死(如爱国心、对偶结合)。其可以用来形容爱慕的强烈情感、情绪或情绪状态。在日常生活里，其通常指人际间的爱。可能因为其为情感之首位，所以爱是美术里最普遍的主题。爱有时亦会被形容为强迫观念-强迫行为症。

爱最佳的定义可能是主动行动，以真心对待某个体（可以是人、物件或神），使整体得到快乐。简而言之，爱即主动使整体得到快乐。(Thomas Jay Oord)。

爱是与生俱来的，所以可以认为是人性的特质，换言之，爱是作为人必须具备的本质之一。虽然世界各民族间的文化差异使得一个普世的爱的定义难以道明，但并非不可能成立。请参看沙皮亚-沃尔福假设。爱可以包括灵魂或心灵上的爱、对法律与组织的爱、对自己的爱、对食物的爱、对金钱的爱、对学习的爱、对权力的爱、对名誉的爱、对别人的爱，数之不尽。不同人对其所接受的爱有著不同的重视程度。爱本质上为抽象慨念，可以体验但难以言语

吸引与依附

生物学观点普遍认为爱有两种主要意欲，性魅力与依附。成人间的依附被假设为共同协作以孕育下一代，并让其依附其父母。

2006年2月，该期的国家地理杂志的封面文章“爱：化学反应”讨论了爱与化学反应的关系。其作者史雷特解释了部份关於此领域的研究，部份重点为：

化学触发反应可以表示为热烈的爱，长期的依附的爱则要双方互相参与而非只是单人参与。

沉醉在爱河时的血清素效应(serotonin effects)拥有与强迫观念-强迫行为症相似的化学表现(这解释了为何沉醉在爱河的人无法想到其他人)。因此亦有人主张若患有强迫观念-强迫行为症的精神病人服食血清素再回收抑制剂或其他抗抑郁药，其堕入爱河的能力会被阻碍。举例：

"我知道一对夫妇在离婚边缘，那位妻子在服食抗抑郁剂。但当其停止服食后，其能再次享受性**，感到其对丈夫的性魅力得到更新，而其夫妇两人亦再次与对方相爱。"(38)

当刚开始时期的热爱消失后，便会转为长期依附的爱，这是因为催产素等化学物的影响。**与**可以帮助触发催产素的作用。

为了触发吸引力，进行费神的活动如驾驶云霄飞车很有作用。即使只是做了十分钟的工作，亦可使其对他人的吸引人增加，这是因为其心跳加速与其他生理反应加速。

友爱与热爱

传统心理学的观点认为爱是由友爱与热爱组成。热爱是强烈的渴望，通常陪随著生理激起(呼吸急促、心跳加速，如堕入爱河)。友爱是由紧密的行为而引起的爱慕与感觉，但不陪随著生理激起(如君子之交)。

爱情三角理论

主条目：爱情三角理论

在1986年，心理学家史登堡在《心理评论》(Psychological Review (Vol. 93, No.2, 119-135))里发表了其著名的爱情三角理论，对爱作出几何学的假设。根据爱情三角理论，爱由三部份组成：

亲密 – 包括了紧密感、联络感与约束感。

** – 包括了驱使人恋爱、互相吸引与进行性行为的动力。

承诺 – 包括了短期的爱恋与长期的爱的维系。

对其他人的爱的程度主要是看这三个组成部件的绝对强度；而对别人的爱的种类则是看这三个组成部件的相对强度。这三个组成部件可当为三角形，互相影响，使得爱出现很多不同类别。三角形的大小代爱的程度，越大代表越爱对方。而三角形的形状则代表爱的种类，普遍分为**阶段(三角形倾向右方)、亲密阶段(正常三角形)、承诺阶段(三角形倾向左方)。这三个元素可以构出七种不同的爱的组合：

亲密 ** 承诺

好感 或 友谊 x

迷恋 或 深恋 x

虚爱 x

浪漫之爱 x x

友伴爱 x x

热爱 x x

圆熟之爱 x x x

[编辑] 爱的风格

苏珊·汉迪斯与克莱德·汉迪斯根据李约翰的理论开发了爱的态度指标，称为爱的风格。其将人际关系分为六个基本类别：

情欲之爱 — 基於对方的外表而产生的热爱。

游戏之爱 — 爱就如游戏，充满乐趣，通常不重视承诺而著重征服对方。

友谊之爱 — 缓慢发展的重情义的爱，基於双方互相尊重与友善。

现实之爱 — 倾向选取可以帮助自己的朋友，使双方皆可由此得益。

依附之爱 — 重情绪的爱，不稳定，是由浪漫之爱衰退而成，充满妒忌与争执。

利他之爱 — 完全无私的爱，重视神交。

两位汉迪斯认为男人会渐渐趋向游戏之爱与依附之爱，反之女人则会渐渐趋向友谊之爱与现实之爱。而两者之间的关系若是具有相类的爱可维持得更为长久。

[编辑] 爱的阶段

费雪提议爱有三种主要的状态：情欲、吸引、依附。爱通常会由情欲状态开始，主要著重**而忽略其他元素。此阶段最基本的推动力是基本性本能、如外表、气味与其他相似的因素是选取伙伴的主要因素。然而随著时间的流逝，其他元素可能会增多而**则减少，但这却是每个人皆不同。在吸引阶段，人们会将注意力集中在其对对方的影响上，而此时忠诚最为重要。

与此相似，当一个人长时间被爱，其将会与其伙伴发展出依附的关系。根据现代科学对爱的解释，由吸引至依附转移需要三十个月时间。其后**消失，爱会由热爱转向友爱，或由浪漫之爱转向好感。

"神圣的爱对比肉体的爱" ，由乔凡尼·巴里欧列所绘

[编辑] 文化观点

[编辑] 中华文化

现代汉语与中华文化里，少数的词汇被用作描绘爱的慨念∶

爱这个字可用作动词如我爱你或名词，如爱情。

恋这个字并不会作单词用，通常会与其他字组合，如谈恋爱、恋人或同性恋。

情这个字通常解作感觉或情绪，通常指代为爱，而其可与其他字组合为相爱的意思，如爱情、情人。

在儒家学说里，恋是纯爱之意。恋为所有人追求的东西，为道德生活的反映。而中国的哲学家墨子则发展出与儒家的恋慨念相对的爱的慨念。爱在墨家学说里为兼爱之意，即爱无等差，对众生皆持对等的爱。浪费与攻伐对爱则不利。虽然墨子的想法亦有一定影响力，但儒家的恋仍是大部份中国人对爱的慨念。

感情指两人之间的感觉。两人会以建立良好感情来表达对对方的爱，如互相帮助。而且可以对万物存有感情，不只限於人。

缘份是指两人间命运的关连。俗语说∶有缘千里能相聚，无缘见面不相识。

早恋是在当代中国常用的概念，指的是青年 、童年时发生的“爱情”或者对某异性人“感兴趣” 或“痴情”。早恋包括青年“男女朋友”以及儿童的早恋感觉（跟英文的“crush”这概念有一点关系）。这概念表示当代中国文化 、社会上的普通观点，就是未成年人由于学习的压力，不应该谈恋爱，否则对他们前途和出息可以有坏处。很重要一种原因是当代中国教育制度的极大竞争性。报纸和别的媒体也报导早恋这现象对学生的危险与家长的担心。

[编辑] 大和文化

在日本佛教里，爱意味著关怀、热情与基本渴望。其可发展为自私或无私与教化两方面。

甘え，在日语里指撒娇，是日本人抚养子女的文化。日本母亲通常会紧抱与纵容其子女，其子女则会通由依赖与孝顺来回报其母亲。部份社会学家(最著名的为土居健郎)认为日本人在长大后的社交手法很大程度建基於童年时对母亲撒娇的手法。

在日语语言学里，最常见与爱相关的两个字为爱与恋。通常非浪漫之爱均以前者表示，而浪漫之爱则以后者表示。父母之爱则称为亲の爱，而与人相恋则称为恋する。当然亦有特例，爱人此词解为相爱之人并暗示为非法的关系，通常表示为婚外情，反之恋人则有男朋友、女朋友或伴侣的含意。

在每天的交谈里，爱与恋却较少用到，反之以爱している或恋している来表示我爱你的人较多，例如日本人会说好きです来表示我喜欢你 -- 好き解为喜好，亦可以用作表示对食物、音乐或其他事件的爱好，就如寿司が好きです解为喜欢寿司，其暗示爱，但没有淡化其情感。

Diligere解为尊重，较少在浪漫之爱里使用。这个字可以通常用以形容两个男性之间的友谊。其对应的名词为diligentia，然而其有著努力、细心之意，与其动词形态只有少量意义重叠。

Observare为'diligere'的同义字，其对应的名词'observantia'亦解为尊重或影响。

Caritas在拉丁文圣经里解为慈爱，但在古典罗马非**教文学里却无此解。因为其由希腊文字演变而得，所以并没有对应的动词。

[编辑] 印尼与马来亚文化

在印尼与马来西亚的语言里，爱可以有数种定义∶

Cinta代表**。

Jatuh cinta指刚堕入爱河。

Sayang指无条件去爱，但亦指损失某些东西产生的遗憾。

呼啸山庄的英文读后感

The Wuuthering Heights

Themes, Motifs SymbolsThemes

Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.

The Destructiveness of a Love That Never Changes

Catherine and Heathcliff’s passion for one another seems to be the center of Wuthering Heights, given that it is stronger and more lasting than any other emotion displayed in the novel, and that it is the source of most of the major conflicts that structure the novel’s plot. As she tells Catherine and Heathcliff’s story, Nelly criticizes both of them harshly, condemning their passion as immoral, but this passion is obviously one of the most compelling and memorable aspects of the book. It is not easy to decide whether Brontë intends the reader to condemn these lovers as blameworthy or to idealize them as romantic heroes whose love transcends social norms and conventional morality. The book is actually structured around two parallel love stories, the first half of the novel centering on the love between Catherine and Heathcliff, while the less dramatic second half features the developing love between young Catherine and Hareton. In contrast to the first, the latter tale ends happily, restoring peace and order to Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange. The differences between the two love stories contribute to the reader’s understanding of why each ends the way it does.

The most important feature of young Catherine and Hareton’s love story is that it involves growth and change. Early in the novel Hareton seems irredeemably brutal, savage, and illiterate, but over time he becomes a loyal friend to young Catherine and learns to read. When young Catherine first meets Hareton he seems completely alien to her world, yet her attitude also evolves from contempt to love. Catherine and Heathcliff’s love, on the other hand, is rooted in their childhood and is marked by the refusal to change. In choosing to marry Edgar, Catherine seeks a more genteel life, but she refuses to adapt to her role as wife, either by sacrificing Heathcliff or embracing Edgar. In Chapter XII she suggests to Nelly that the years since she was twelve years old and her father died have been like a blank to her, and she longs to return to the moors of her childhood. Heathcliff, for his part, possesses a seemingly superhuman ability to maintain the same attitude and to nurse the same grudges over many years.

Moreover, Catherine and Heathcliff’s love is based on their shared perception that they are identical. Catherine declares, famously, “I am Heathcliff,” while Heathcliff, upon Catherine’s death, wails that he cannot live without his “soul,” meaning Catherine. Their love denies difference, and is strangely asexual. The two do not kiss in dark corners or arrange secret trysts, as *****erers do. Given that Catherine and Heathcliff’s love is based upon their refusal to change over time or embrace difference in others, it is fitting that the disastrous problems of their generation are overcome not by some climactic reversal, but simply by the inexorable passage of time, and the rise of a new and distinct generation. Ultimately, Wuthering Heights presents a vision of life as a process of change, and celebrates this process over and against the romantic intensity of its principal characters.

The Precariousness of Social Class

As members of the gentry, the Earnshaws and the Lintons occupy a somewhat precarious place within the hierarchy of late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century British society. At the top of British society was the royalty, followed by the aristocracy, then by the gentry, and then by the lower classes, who made up the vast majority of the population. Although the gentry, or upper middle class, possessed servants and often large estates, they held a nonetheless fragile social position. The social status of aristocrats was a formal and settled matter, because aristocrats had official titles. Members of the gentry, however, held no titles, and their status was thus subject to change. A man might see himself as a gentleman but find, to his embarras**ent, that his neighbors did not share this view. A discussion of whether or not a man was really a gentleman would consider such questions as how much land he owned, how many tenants and servants he had, how he spoke, whether he kept horses and a carriage, and whether his money came from land or “trade”—gentlemen scorned banking and commercial activities.

Considerations of class status often crucially inform the characters’ motivations in Wuthering Heights. Catherine’s decision to marry Edgar so that she will be “the greatest woman of the neighborhood” is only the most obvious example. The Lintons are relatively firm in their gentry status but nonetheless take great pains to prove this status through their behaviors. The Earnshaws, on the other hand, rest on much shakier ground socially. They do not have a carriage, they have less land, and their house, as Lockwood remarks with great puzzlement, resembles that of a “homely, northern farmer” and not that of a gentleman. The shifting nature of social status is demonstrated most strikingly in Heathcliff’s trajectory from homeless waif to young gentleman-by-adoption to common laborer to gentleman again (although the status-conscious Lockwood remarks that Heathcliff is only a gentleman in “dress and manners”).

Motifs

Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, and literary devices that can help to develop and inform the text’s major themes.

Doubles

Brontë organizes her novel by arranging its elements—characters, places, and themes—into pairs. Catherine and Heathcliff are closely matched in many ways, and see themselves as identical. Catherine’s character is divided into two warring sides: the side that wants Edgar and the side that wants Heathcliff. Catherine and young Catherine are both remarkably similar and strikingly different. The two houses, Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, represent opposing worlds and values. The novel has not one but two distinctly different narrators, Nelly and Mr. Lockwood. The relation between such paired elements is usually quite complicated, with the members of each pair being neither exactly alike nor diametrically opposed. For instance, the Lintons and the Earnshaws may at first seem to represent opposing sets of values, but, by the end of the novel, so many intermarriages have taken place that one can no longer distinguish between the two families.

Repetition

Repetition is another tactic Brontë employs in organizing Wuthering Heights. It seems that nothing ever ends in the world of this novel. Instead, time seems to run in cycles, and the horrors of the past repeat themselves in the present. The way that the names of the characters are recycled, so that the names of the characters of the younger generation seem only to be rescramblings of the names of their parents, leads the reader to consider how plot elements also repeat themselves. For instance, Heathcliff’s degradation of Hareton repeats Hindley’s degradation of Heathcliff. Also, the young Catherine’s mockery of Joseph’s earnest evangelical zealousness repeats her mother’s. Even Heathcliff’s second try at opening Catherine’s grave repeats his first.

The Conflict Between Nature and Culture

In Wuthering Heights, Brontë constantly plays nature and culture against each other. Nature is represented by the Earnshaw family, and by Catherine and Heathcliff in particular. These characters are governed by their passions, not by reflection or ideals of civility. Correspondingly, the house where they live—Wuthering Heights—comes to symbolize a similar wildness. On the other hand, Thrushcross Grange and the Linton family represent culture, refinement, convention, and cultivation.

When, in Chapter VI, Catherine is bitten by the Lintons’ dog and brought into Thrushcross Grange, the two sides are brought onto the collision course that structures the majority of the novel’s plot. At the time of that first meeting between the Linton and Earnshaw households, chaos has already begun to erupt at Wuthering Heights, where Hindley’s cruelty and injustice reign, whereas all seems to be fine and peaceful at Thrushcross Grange. However, the influence of Wuthering Heights soon proves overpowering, and the inhabitants of Thrushcross Grange are drawn into Catherine, Hindley, and Heathcliff’s drama. Thus the reader almost may interpret Wuthering Heights’s impact on the Linton family as an allegory for the corruption of culture by nature, creating a curious reversal of the more traditional story of the corruption of nature by culture. However, Brontë tells her story in such a way as to prevent our interest and sympathy from straying too far from the wilder characters, and often portrays the more civilized characters as despicably weak and silly. This method of characterization prevents the novel from flattening out into a simple privileging of culture over nature, or vice versa. Thus in the end the reader must acknowledge that the novel is no mere allegory.

Symbols

Symbols are objects, characters, figures, and colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.

Moors

The constant emphasis on landscape within the text of Wuthering Heights endows the setting with symbolic importance. This landscape is comprised primarily of moors: wide, wild expanses, high but somewhat soggy, and thus infertile. Moorland cannot be cultivated, and its uniformity makes navigation difficult. It features particularly waterlogged patches in which people could potentially drown. (This possibility is mentioned several times in Wuthering Heights.) Thus, the moors serve very well as symbols of the wild threat posed by nature. As the setting for the beginnings of Catherine and Heathcliff’s bond (the two play on the moors during childhood), the moorland transfers its symbolic associations onto the love affair.

Ghosts

Ghosts appear throughout Wuthering Heights, as they do in most other works of Gothic fiction, yet Brontë always presents them in such a way that whether they really exist remains ambiguous. Thus the world of the novel can always be interpreted as a realistic one. Certain ghosts—such as Catherine’s spirit when it appears to Lockwood in Chapter III—may be explained as nightmares. The villagers’ alleged sightings of Heathcliff’s ghost in Chapter XXXIV could be di**issed as unverified superstition. Whether or not the ghosts are “real,” they symbolize the manifestation of the past within the present, and the way memory stays with people, permeating their day-to-day lives.

but表示的是一种转折的关系，但如果遇见以下情况怎么办？

忽视家务活本来就是一种不正确的行为，（按理说应该改正）但现在情况不但没有改善，反而更加被轻视。but表示不合常理。