求"翻译"的英文定义

翻译

词性及解释

translate;

interpret;

interpretation;

rendition;

translation;

version

【计】

translating

【经】

interpretation

例句

To

translate

orally.

口译口头翻译

Interpreters

and

translation

are

necessary.

通译和翻译因此不可或缺。

To

translate,

especially

aloud.

口译翻译，尤指口译

The

challenge

for

translators

and

interpreters

is

to

be

aware

of

these

differences.

翻译员和通译员所面对的挑战就是要了解这些差异。

I

think

the

translator

miss

some

of

the

subtleties

of

the

original.

我认为译者没有把原文中的一些微妙之处翻译出来。

翻译，尽快

Eileen Chang was born in Shanghai on September 30, 1920 to a renowned family. Her paternal grandfather was a son-in-law to Li Hongzhang, an influential Qing court official. Her family moved to Tianjin in 1922, where she started school at the age of four. When she was five, her birth mother left for Britain after her father took in a concubine and grew addicted to opium. Although she did return four years later, following his promise to quit the drug and split with the concubine, a divorce could not be averted. Chang's unhappy childhood in the broken family probably gave her later works their pessimistic overtone.

Chang was renamed Eileen in preparation for her entry into the Saint Maria Girls' School. During her secondary education, she was already deemed a genius in literature. Her writings were published in the school magazine. In 1939, she was accepted into the University of Hong Kong to study literature. She also received a scholarship to study in the University of London, though the opportunity had to be given up when Hong Kong fell to the Japanese in 1941. Chang then returned to Shanghai. Living in Japanese-occupied Shanghai she wrote many popular pieces published in mass-circulation magazines, but her remarkable use of language meant that she was also taken seriously as a writer. She fed herself with what she was best at - writing. It was during this period when some of her most acclaimed works were penned and the Chang Legend began with the publication of her first short story in Shanghai in 1942.

Chang met her first hu**and in 1943 and married him in the following year. She loved him dearly, despite he being already married as well as labeled a traitor to the Japanese. When Japan was defeated in 1945, her hu**and escaped to Wenzhou, where he fell in love with yet another woman. When Chang traced him to his refuge, she realized she could not salvage the marriage. They were finally divorced in 1947.

However, the Communists' takeover of China in 1949 cut short Chang's run of stardom, for with a much publicized prestigious family background, Chang knew that she would become a conspicuous target for Communist persecution. Foreseeing political trouble, she escaped to Hong Kong in 1952 and worked as a translator for the American News Agency for three years. She then left for the United States in the fall of 1955, never to return to Chinese mainland again. The Rice Sprout Song, the first book published after her immigration, probes the ironies of life under the Communists. Her inspiration for the novel is a newspaper article about a party member who finds himself questioning orders to shoot peasants who are raiding a granary during a famine.

In New York, Chang met her second hu**and, an American scriptwriter, whom she married in August 1956. He died in 1967. After his death, she held short-term jobs at Radcliffe College and UC Berkeley. She relocated to Los Angeles in 1973. Two years later, she completed the English translation of a celebrated Qing novel written in the Wu dialect. On September 8, 1995, she was found dead in her apartment. According to her will, she was cremated without any open funeral and her ashes were released to the Pacific Ocean.

Chang is no doubt the most talented woman writer in the 20th century China. Over the last century few writers have had as much influence on the development of modern Chinese literature in Chinese mainland, Hong Kong, and Taiwan as her. Her obsession with privacy made her known as the "Garbo of Chinese letters", and photographs reveal a woman whose elegance and contemplative introspection justify that title. Written on Water, first published in 1945, showcases why, more than half a century after she first won fame in Shanghai, Chang still enjoys an enormous popularity among readers, both in China and overseas. She offers essays on art, literature, war, and urban life, as well as autobiographical reflections. She takes in the sights and sounds of wartime Shanghai and Hong Kong, with the tremors of national upheaval and the drone of warplanes in the background, and inventively fuses explorations of urban life, literary trends, domestic habits, and historic events. Her stylized depictions of Chinese manners and morals, her witty inquiry into urban trivia, and her "celebration" of historical contingency are a tableau vivant of modern Chinese lives at their most complex and fascinating. She captures the subtleties of the urban experience, pointedly from a woman's perspective, and the trivialities of daily endeavors during the Japanese occupation, with humor and insight. Her self-effacing, mannered prose and power for observing visual designs and social manners shine when she writes of fashion, the family, her past, and film and drama.

With a distinctive style that is at once meditative, vibrant, and humorous, Chang engages the reader through sly, ironic humor; an occasionally chatty tone; and an intense fascination with the subtleties of modern urban life. Her works vividly capture the sights and sounds of Shanghai, a city defined by its mix of tradition and modernity. She explores the city's food, fashions, shops, cultural life, and social mores; she reveals and upends prevalent attitudes toward women and in the process presents a portrait of a liberated, co**opolitan woman, enjoying the opportunities, freedoms, and pleasures offered by urban life. In addition to her descriptions of daily life, she also reflects on a variety of artistic and literary issues, including contemporary films, the aims of the writer, the popularity of the Peking Opera, dance, and painting.

Her works frequently deal with the tensions between men and women in love. Her writing is very detailed. She used a lot of adjectives and idioms in describing some subtle and complex plots and characters of the story. Compared to other writers, she is very distinct when describing the characters, setting the details out quite strongly and giving the reader a good sense about who they are. The conversations that she creates between characters really show her skills as an outstanding writer because of how realistic they are. None of the dialogues seem to be unnatural or unbelievable.

Chang is a talented storyteller, which is clearly shown on how skillful she unfolds a story of a love between a widow and a playboy, ending in a marriage unpredictable to most of its readers. The perspectives that are used are first person and third person narratives. Shortly after these dialogues, she sometimes used her own narration to provide more objective views.

求带有bt的英文单词，词组也行，越多越好，谢了。

共有213个字里面有bt的

bobtail

bobtailed

bobtailing

bobtails

codebtor

codebtors

debt

debtless

debtor

debtors

debts

doubt

doubtable

doubted

doubter

doubters

doubtful

doubtfully

doubtfulness

doubtfulnesses

doubting

doubtingly

doubtless

doubtlessly

doubtlessness

doubtlessnesses

doubts

indebted

indebtedness

indebtednesses

misdoubt

misdoubted

misdoubting

misdoubts

obtain

obtainabilities

obtainability

obtainable

obtained

obtainer

obtainers

obtaining

obtainment

obtainments

obtains

obtect

obtected

obtest

obtested

obtesting

obtests

obtrude

obtruded

obtruder

obtruders

obtrudes

obtruding

obtrusion

obtrusions

obtrusive

obtrusively

obtrusiveness

obtrusivenesses

obtund

obtunded

obtunding

obtunds

obturate

obturated

obturates

obturating

obturation

obturations

obturator

obturators

obtuse

obtusely

obtuseness

obtusenesses

obtuser

obtusest

obtusities

obtusity

overindebtedness

overindebtednesses

oversubtle

redoubt

redoubtable

redoubtably

redoubts

reobtain

reobtained

reobtaining

reobtains

subtask

subtasks

subtaxa

subtaxon

subtaxons

subteen

subteens

subtemperate

subtenancies

subtenancy

subtenant

subtenants

subtend

subtended

subtending

subtends

subterfuge

subterfuges

subterminal

subterranean

subterraneanly

subterraneous

subterraneously

subtest

subtests

subtext

subtexts

subtextual

subtheme

subthemes

subtherapeutic

subthreshold

subtile

subtilely

subtileness

subtilenesses

subtiler

subtilest

subtilin

subtilins

subtilisin

subtilisins

subtilization

subtilizations

subtilize

subtilized

subtilizes

subtilizing

subtilties

subtilty

subtitle

subtitled

subtitles

subtitling

subtle

subtleness

subtlenesses

subtler

subtlest

subtleties

subtlety

subtly

subtone

subtones

subtonic

subtonics

subtopia

subtopias

subtopic

subtopics

subtotal

subtotaled

subtotaling

subtotalled

subtotalling

subtotally

subtotals

subtract

subtracted

subtracter

subtracters

subtracting

subtraction

subtractions

subtractive

subtracts

subtrahend

subtrahends

subtreasuries

subtreasury

subtrend

subtrends

subtribe

subtribes

subtropic

subtropical

subtropics

subtunic

subtunics

subtype

subtypes

supersubtle

supersubtleties

supersubtlety

thumbtack

thumbtacked

thumbtacking

thumbtacks

undoubtable

undoubted

undoubtedly

undoubting

unobtainable

unobtrusive

unobtrusively

unobtrusiveness

unobtrusivenesses

unsubtle

unsubtly

英语诗歌语言学指南——韵律——韵律和诗行(Metre and the Line of Verse)

7.3 韵律和诗行(Metre and the Line of Verse)

在过去的6个世纪已经占据英语韵律学主导地位的这种韵律，严格讲就是众所周知的“重音的音节(accentual syllabic)”；即，它是在音节数量和重读音节上都具有规律性的一种模式。它区别于Anglo-Saxon诗歌的纯粹意义上的“音节韵律(syllabic metre)”(其音节数量，而不是每个诗行的重音(accents)数量，是可变的)；也区别于纯粹意义上的(所说的)法语诗歌（其诗歌中每行音节的数量，而不是重音的数量，是固定的）。

7.3.1 英语韵律作为押韵的并行化(English Metre as Rhythmic Paralleli**)

除去所有微妙之处(subtleties)以外，传统的英语韵律不过了押韵的并行化：是一种连续重读和非重读音节的模式，其规律性比一般英语口语所要求的更高。(需要指出，这是并行化，并不是完全重复，因为尽管押韵重复了，然而，实际的发音并没有重复。)一种严格的韵律并行化在于重读和非重读音节的严格交替，例如，在Milton的L’Allegro的最后两行：

我们可以更一步地指出，英语诗歌是一座并行化的 “层级大厦(hierarchical edifice)”，押韵的并行分段就是这座层级建筑的“砖块(bricks)”。押韵模式将它们自己组织成诗行，诗行再进一步地轮流进入并行化的结构：couplets(对句)、诗节(stanzas)、等等。诗歌格式连同其结构层次，将语言的本身的层次机构模仿成语音单元、语法单元、等等。它们之间的区别，足够明显，就是诗体格式的约束，是按照诗人自身意愿采用的，是惯例，而英语逐个单元(unit-by-unit)语法和语音组织是不可逃避(inescapable)和不可改变(unalterable)的，除非放弃将语言自身作为一种变流系统。

假如，我们暂且考虑将节拍作为并行化的基本韵律单元，由于需要区别于传统韵律节奏分析的“音步(foot)”，我们可以建立起4个常规的韵律类型，分别基于1个，2个,3个，

图[g]

理论上，构造每个节拍包含5个音节的一行诗是有可能的，但是我不知道这样的韵律是否曾经有人认真尝试过。甚至以上的第一个和最后一个类型也是少见的，简单地说，因为与言辞关联的一个音节和四个章节的节拍远比言辞与两个或三个音节关系的节拍少很多，以致于长期维护这种模式是困难的。双音节的(disyllabic)和三音节的(trisyllabic)韵律最为常见，这只是传统英语韵律学所普遍认可的唯一类型。注意速度的印象是如何随着每小节音节数的增加而增加的。通常认为三音节韵律生动形象且适合轻松的题材(subject)。Kipling偏爱的四音节“pæonic”(现在拼作paeonic，指的是“一长音节三短音节构成的四音节韵脚”)韵律要求(calls for)轻快(brisk)、缓慢的(cantering)朗读(recitation)节奏(tempo)。很难想象，这样一种韵律被会被选为基于(比如说)宗教题材的庄严诗。

7.3.2 传统韵律学的“音步”(The ‘Foot’ of Traditional Prosody)

很明显，节拍(就像音乐中的小节( bar ))总是始于重音( accent )，不要与传统音步( foot )混为一谈，音步可以始于重读音节，也可以始于非重读音节。通常允许在英语诗歌中起重要作用的主要音步类型有 ：

IAMB(抑扬格,短长格) × / ANAPAEST(抑抑扬格,短短长格) × × /

TROCHEE(扬抑格，长短格) / × DACTYL(扬抑抑格,长短短格) / × ×

实际上，“音步(foot)”是重复地构成韵律模式的重读或非重读音音节单元或者时间跨度(span)。这有可能会，也有可能不会与节拍、或者押韵单元同时发生。在规律的抑扬格的（iambic）五步格诗(pentameter)中，音节的基本反复模式是序列´¤，或者抑扬格的音步（抑杨格的第一个音为短音，或称非重读音(unaccented syllables)；第二个音为长音，或称重读音节(accented syllables)）：

这儿的节拍通过竖线分隔开，很清楚地区别于音步，音步使用水平的方括号标识。另一方面，在规律的扬抑格五步格诗中，音步和节拍是一致的：

尽管如此， 传统韵律学有一个臭名昭著的缺点——当一行诗行的起始和结尾音节都是重读音节时，或者都是非重读音时，“上升韵律( rising rhythm )”(抑扬格( iambs )， anapaests (抑抑扬格))和“下降韵律( falling rhythm )”(扬抑格( trochees )，扬抑抑格( dactyls ))之间的区分，不能合理地绘制出来 ：

以上两个模式，在英语诗歌中都非常普遍， 都可以按照抑扬格或扬抑格韵律来来标出它们的韵律模式。我们知道，如果按节拍分析，只有一种方式来分配小节线：即，在每一个重读音节前放置一个小节线。但是，如果按音步分析，我们必须专断地支持抑扬格或扬抑格（也就是强行往抑扬格或扬抑格方向掰，这是没有合理理由的）。

因此，在英语韵律学分析中，节拍是一个比音步可靠的概念。音步的重要性主要在于其在 音韵学 理论体系中的历史地位，而这些音韵学理论体系是由几个世纪以来的诗人研究而来，或多或少地，他们都会有意地在他们的诗歌中加以应用。这种理论“装置”源于经典韵律学误用到英语的押韵，我们有理由认为，尽管这种理论体系长期占据英语诗意分析，但是从来没有被完全吸收。当我们从学习传统转向童谣押韵“民间韵律(folk prosody)”和流行歌曲的时候，这种韵律音步分析法成了明显不适用的分析工具 。Harvey Gross在这方面使用了中的例子：

这段押韵的最重要的韵律事实是，它始终(throughout)以三拍(three-time)写成，所有小节都在具有三个音节的行内。但是，如果使用传统音步来操作，使用觉得就是被迫将诗行1、2、和4按照“下降韵律(falling rhythm)” ( 扬抑格，扬抑抑格 ) 进行韵律分析，而将诗行3、5、和6按照“上升韵律(rising rhythm)”(抑扬格，抑抑扬格)进行韵律分析，因此，混淆了模式的规律性。 在这个案例中，以及在其它无数的案例中，传统韵律学分析方法( scansion )，通过引入与韵律不相关的区别，迫使人们过度分析( over-****yse ) 。

7.3.3 诗行(The Line of Verse)

为了践行其标签“重音的音节(accentual-syllabic)”，传统的英语诗歌不仅必须能够将每个重读音节划分为规则数量的非重读音节，而且还必须能够将每行诗划分为规律的重读音节或重音数量。第二层分析通过命名得以确认，单音步诗行(monometer)、双音步诗行(dimeter)、三音步诗行(trimeter)、五音步诗行（pentamenter）、六音步诗行（hexameter）、 分别对应包括从1到6个重音的诗行。

我们现在必须考虑如何识别和定义一行诗——作为诗歌的音韵单位，诗行的区分必须基于某些合理的依据，而不仅仅是依赖于排版 。正如David Abercrombie所指出的那样，诗行可以通过“各种方式分界(delimit)，这些分界符可以称为‘行尾标识符(line-end markers)’，在英语中，似乎存在三种这样的行尾标识符。”  他指出的这三种行尾标识符如下所示，可以单独使用也可以组合使用 ：

[a] 押韵，或一些其它的发音方案。

[b] 静尾重音( a silent final stress )。( silent stress 是什么情况？)

[c] 单音节节拍，不用在其它任何位置，恰好与诗行的最后音节重合( 见前面§7.3.1图[g] )。

如果在一首诗中出现了以上标识符中的一个或多个，即使它们不像在散文中一样被印刷或朗诵出来，当一个人第一次面对它们的时候，应该都能够识别出诗行的划分。从韵律角度看，它们之中最有趣的是静重音(Ù)(silent stress)，有时候，其自身整个都是静音节拍(silent measure)：

有时候，存在下列诗行，与诗句开头音节(anacrusis，即，诗句开头的非重读音节或音节)共享节拍：

在这些例子中，如果一个人用重读音节在时间上有节奏地敲击(taps)(注意一个额外的节拍（beat）如何自然地填补一行和下一行之间的时间)，就可以最为清晰地感知到静重音(silent stress)。

通过引入与韵律不相关的区别，迫使人们过度分析( over-****yse ) 。

7.3.4 韵律的一些数值方面(Some Numerical Aspects of Metre)

如果进一步地，按照Abercrombie的理论，我们可以观察到，静重音(silent stresses)自身常常闯入(intrude)携带奇数数量重音的诗行末尾，而不是携带偶数数量重音的诗行末尾。例如，三音步(trimeters)和五音步(pentameters)待行具有静重音，而四音步诗行(tetrameter)却没有。因此，假如我们将静重音加到每句诗行发重音的数量上，我们得出这产一个结论—— 所有的韵律，甚至是那些明显是奇数数量的韵律，事实上，都是基于每句诗行的重音的偶数数量 。五音步诗可以看成是带有一个静重音的六音步诗，如果类推。 这种双节拍 (double measure)(对应于传统的“成双的(dipode)”) 是韵律的基本单位 。

为了验证这一点，通过阅读下面的选段，并注意在三音步诗行之间或者五音步诗行之间是似乎需要怎样的暂停，但是双音步诗行之间或四音步诗行之间似乎不需要。再一次地，用重读音节在时间上有节奏地轻拍有助于感知静重音。

认识到静重音的存在，可以有助于我们更进一步地理解( appreciate )音乐和诗歌之间的联系 。正如更为简单的音乐的歌曲和舞蹈形式一样，倾向于分解为四节拍(four-bar)、八节拍(eight-bar)、甚至十六节拍的段(sections)，因此，有非常多的诗歌形式是由基于韵律单元乘以2的倍数构成。下面列出的这三种流行的韵律模式中的每一种都具有对称的四方结构，每一个都由四个节拍组成四个段。这些段(sections)并非每一种情况都对应诗行，图中诗行用短竖线标明：

正如我所期望的，假如读者已经能够没有多少困难地辨识这些公式，他们可以被识别为[a] Old Mother Hubbard 的韵律, [b] 五行打油诗(limerick)韵律，和[c] The Ancient Mariner和很多其它诗歌的流行民谣(ballad)韵律。这种展示韵律模式的方式显示了一种被正常的逐行排列所掩盖的规律性。在更为复杂的诗节形式中，这种数学上的对称模式通常很少标识，但这可能是我们对诗歌的期待的一部分。

而关于二元性的(duality)主题，我们可能会注意到，在单节拍和双节拍之间有一种奇怪的矛盾(ambivalence)，二元性对于音乐中的拍子记号(time-signatures)的二拍(two-time)和四拍(four-time)的正反感情而言是并行的(parallel)。要将同一首诗解释为由两个音节的节拍组成，或者四个音节的节拍组成，这是很容易的；哪一种解释最能说明自己的观点，很大程序上取决于传递的速度。正如我们早先所见到的，Kipling的四音节(pæonic)韵律，就要求以相当快的速度，“奔跑的速度(cantering speed)”朗读：

尽管如此，如果朗读速度降低，中等速度的重读，会使人感受到每个音步的第三个音节，正是这个音节引起听众重新将这段诗行解读为双音节节拍。 这应该不会让人感到惊讶，因为这是英语押韵众所周知的事实——言语说得越慢，重音节的重读程度就越高 。然而，仍然可以感受到在Kipling诗行中交替重音(alternate stresses)依然占据主导地位(prominence)，以致于，可以按照双节拍和单节拍这种情况来分析它，分别标为

也这也是英语押韵的一个特征——当节拍包含三个重读音节的时候，其中的一个，通常是中间的这一个，往往收到一个从属的“始端的( incipient )”重读，可以使用沉音符号( grave accent )(\)表示 。因此，本章节中引用的Kipling诗行的其它行可以更为精确地转写为：

此处，for、of、is、和than在某种程度上，尽管在单词分类上，它们通常属于非重读音节，且尽管它们之中的三个可能(甚至在这儿的上下文中)包含中性元音(neutral vowel) “中央元音，简称央元音(schwa)”(注：指非重读音节的元音) ，从而压缩了发音：/fə/，/əv/，/ðən/,但比起其直接领域仍然更占据主导性。然而，这与前面的例子的区别之一，似乎只是在发重音的程度上而非分类上。

重读音节值的多义性(equivocality)，在这儿是由于押韵模式的延伸(overriding)，而不是内在固有的音节权重，或许，这可以解释为什么这样做是可能的——将非重读音节视为重读音节是基于诗行韵律分析的某些目的，例如§7.2.3章节引用的那些例子：

Éyeless in Gáza àt the míll with sláves.

这种表现(rendering)比起早先给出的带有一个中间的(medial)静重音的表现在一种合理的快速表现(performance)方面更为实际(realistic)，其中，单词at被赋予“始端”重音，提升了专有的(ad hoc)一个重读音节的押韵状态，而早先的例子更多属于减慢或故意的演说风格：

Éyeless in Gáza at the míll with sláves.

如此这般，是英语押韵结构的不稳定性(instability)，很难把它的描述简化为“是或否”的分析。我们必须承认，拆分成单节拍或双节拍矛盾(ambivalence)有时候表明同一诗句的解释存在相互冲突(conflicting)。但是，不可否认的是，“单音节”和“双音节”的概念本身而言，其对于英语韵律的满意和全面的解释，即使谈不上不可或缺，也还是大有裨益的。

7.3.5 重音的韵律( Accentual Metre)

重音的韵律，有时候称为“重读音节(strong stress)”韵律，是基于每诗行相同数量的重读音节的韵律，而不是对应于每重读音节的准确的数量。它在英语韵律学的历史上具有某些重要性，作为记载于我们语言中的最早期的诗歌的韵律。尽管在十三世纪和十四世纪大陆的重读音节的韵律成了英语诗歌的主要韵律基础，从而被替换掉了，但是，在一些流行的诗歌中(叙事诗(ballads)、押韵童谣(nursery rhymes)、等等)保存了下来，并且经由二十世纪的诗人如Eliot和Auden之手得以复兴。Hopkins的“跳韵(sprung rhythm)”也是重音韵律的一种变体之一。

理论上，重音的诗歌可以利用(exploit)从单音节到四音节再到五音节的节拍的押韵结构的所有可能性，但是，通常在实际中单音节和四音节的节拍比较少见(除了在行尾，在这种情况下，单音节自然可接受)，一般在二拍(duple time)和三拍(triple)之间不规则地波动(vacillation)。例如，很多十九世纪晚期和二十世纪初期的诗歌很多都是这种情况，Hardy就是其中的一个例子：

He énters, and múte on the édge of the cháir

Sits a thín-faced lády, a stránger thére,

A týpe of decáyed gentílitý;

And by sóme **all sígns he wéll can gúess

That she cómes to him álmost bréakfastléss.

[In the Study]

这种韵律可以被视为重音韵律的受限格式，或者，或许从其历史环境来说，视为一种允许在两个音节和三个音节节拍之间自由变化的重读音节的约定似乎更有道理。

下面列出的选段来自Beowulf，是Anglo-Saxon头韵诗歌(alliterative poetry)的重音韵律：

以上第一行又分成两个半行，每个半行包括两个重音。还是这样，这儿有对重读音节的数量和位置的各种约束：按照Anglo-Saxon韵律学的最广泛接受的观点，每个半行的押韵提取自一个受限的模式**，包括(举个例子) / × ×，但不是× × / /。