高分求达尔文进化论常识性英文简介

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现代生物学之父：查尔斯·达尔文

2004/06/17 11:37 英语广场

Father of Modern Biology: Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin's whole life was changed by one lucky chance. In 1831, before he went on the voyage1 of the Beagle2, he was a very ordinary young man of twenty-two. No one in England—certainly not Darwin himself —had any idea of the future he had before him.

His sister Caroline gave him his first lessons. He was both lazy and naughty, and everyone was glad that he went away to school after his mother's death when he was eight.

Charles soon became a keen collector. He collected anything that caught his interest: insects3, seashells, coins and interesting stones. He said later that his collection prepared him for his work as a naturalist4.

He was not a very clever boy, but Charles was good at doing the things that interested him. He also took pleasure in carrying out experiments. But he could not learn Latin and Greek which in those days were an important part of education. He was a disappointment to his father, who was sure that he would bring nothing but shame to himself and his family.

In 1825, when Charles was sixteen, his father sent him to Edinburgh to study medicine, saying ：“As you like natural history5 so much, perhaps we can make a doctor of you.”

But Charles found the lectures boring, and the dissections6 frightening. But at Edinburgh he was able to go to natural history lectures. In 1826 he read a paper on sea-worms to the Natural History Society. This paper was his first known work on this subject.

Then his father decided to send Charles to Cambridge University to study to become a priest. With hard work, he did quite well. And, in the countryside around Cambridge, he was able to shoot, fish and collect insects.

He seemed likely to become a country priest like hundreds of others, sharing his time between his work and his interest in natural history and country life. He had a deep faith in God and a lasting interest in religion7. At this time he did not doubt that every word of the Bible was true.

Then a letter from Captain Robert FitzRoy changed his life. FitzRoy was planning to make a voyage around the world on a ship called the Beagle. He wanted a naturalist to join the ship, and Darwin was recommended8. That voyage was the start of Charles Darwin's great life work.

In those days a great many people believed that every word written in the Bible was true. Darwin hoped that the plants and animals that they found in the course of their voyage would prove the truth of the Bible story of the great Flood9.

He began to observe everything. When they got to Rio de Janeiro in South America, Charles was overcome with joy to see so many different creatures, so much life and colour. His notebooks were full of detailed observations.

Then they reached dry land at Punta Alta. There Darwin discovered his first fossils10. Why, he wondered, were there horse bones at Punta Alta, when there had been no horses in the New World until Cortez brought his from Spain11?

They came to Tierra del Fuego at the tip of South America. It was a strange place, with terrible storms. Its people grew no food, and they slept on the wet ground. Darwin observed their looks and habits.

“How can people be so different, if all are descended12 from Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden?” Charles wondered.

A trip into the mountains showed Darwin seashells at a height of 12,000 feet. Lower down were fossil trees.

“So those trees once stood by the sea,” thought Darwin. “The sea came up and covered them. Then the sea-bed rose up...”. To a man who had been taught that every word in the Bible was true, this was very puzzling.

In Chile, where Darwin saw earthquakes and volcanoes, he began to see what must have happened. The centre of the earth, he decided, was very hot. The surface of the earth was thinner in some places. It was in these places that earthquakes and volcanoes developed.

As the Beagle sailed around the world, Darwin began to wonder how life had developed on earth. He saw volcanic islands in the sea, and wondered how living things had got there.

But people who believed every word of the Bible thought that God had made all creatures and Man. But, if that was true, why did some of the fossils look like “mistakes” which had failed to change and, for that reason, died out?

On went Beagle, to Tahiti13, New Zealand and Australia. There, Darwin saw coral and coral islands for the first time. How had these islands come about14? Soon, he had the answer. Coral was made up of the bodies of millions of tiny creatures, piled up over millions of years —a million years for each island. Darwin wrote it all down in his notebooks.

After five years he was home. He was never again the healthy young man who climbed mountains and carried heavy bags of fossils for miles.

He set to work, getting his collection in order. And, in 1839, he married his cousin15, Emma Wedgwood. It was a happy marriage with ten children. He could be found working in his study, with a child beside him.

His first great work The Zoology of the Beagle was well received, but he was slow to make public his ideas on the origins16 of life. He was certainly very worried about disagreeing with the accepted views of the Church.

Happily, the naturalists at Cambridge persuaded Darwin that he must make his ideas public. So Darwin and Wallace, another naturalist who had the same opinions as Darwin, produced a paper together. A year later Darwin's great book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection appeared. It attracted a storm.

People thought that Darwin was saying they were descended from monkeys. What a shameful idea! Although most scientists agreed that Darwin was right and that the story of Adam and Eve was merely a story, the Church was still so strong that Darwin never received any honours for his work.

Many years later, he published his other great work, The Descent of Man. He gave a lecture at the Royal Institution17, when the whole audience stood up and clapped18.

His health grew worse, but still he worked. “When I have to give up observation, I shall die,” he said. He was still working on 17, April, 1882. He was dead two days later.

翻译

现代生物学之父：查尔斯·达尔文

一次偶然的机遇改变了查尔斯·达尔文的一生。1831年踏上贝格尔号的航程之前，他还是个普普通通的22岁青年。没有人，当然也包括他自己，知道他的未来是什么样子。

姐姐卡罗琳教会了他许多人生第一课。他是个懒惰又淘气的孩子，8岁那年母亲去世后他总算进了学校，人人都为此而高兴。

不久查尔斯爱上了收集，收集所有他感兴趣的东西：昆虫呀、海贝呀，还有硬币和奇形怪状的石头。他后来说这些收集为他成为博物学家打下了基础。

查尔斯并不是个特别聪明的孩子，但只要感兴趣的事情他都做得很棒。他还喜欢做各种试验，但却学不好拉丁文和希腊文，这在当时的教育中可是很重要的一部分。父亲对他颇感失望，认定他只会一事无成，辱没家门。

1825年，查尔斯16岁，父亲将他送到爱丁堡学医，说“既然你如此喜欢博物学，或许我们可以把你培养成一名医生。”

但是查尔斯却烦透了那些讲座，也惧怕解剖，不过在爱丁堡他可以去听博物学方面的讲座。1826年，他在博物学社宣读了一篇有关海船蛀虫的文章，这是该领域中他第一篇为人所知的作品。

随后他父亲决定送他去剑桥大学学习，将来当一名牧师。由于刻苦努力，他学得相当不错，而且得以在剑桥附近的乡村射猎、钓鱼以及收集各种昆虫。

看来，他像数以百计的其他学生一样可能成为一位乡村牧师，工作的同时，还可以兼顾自己对博物学和乡村生活的兴趣。他笃信上帝，对宗教有不减的热情。当时他毫不怀疑《圣经》字字真实。

可是一封来自罗伯特·菲茨洛伊船长的信改变了他的一生。菲茨洛伊计划驾驶“贝格尔号”海船做一次环球航行，他想要一位博物学家加盟，有人推荐了达尔文。此次航海成为查尔斯终生伟业的起点。

那时很多人笃信《圣经》。达尔文希望航海过程中发现的各种动植物能证明《圣经》中有关那场洪水的文字确有其事。

他开始对万物进行观察。他们到达南美洲的里约热内卢时，看到种类如此繁多的生物，那么生机盎然而色彩斑斓，查尔斯欣喜若狂，他的笔记本上全是详细的观察记录。

随后他们到了Punta Alta 的干旱地带，达尔文在那儿发现了首批化石。奇怪的是，Cortez将马从西班牙带进美洲之前，Punta Alta是没有马的，为什么却有马骨化石呢？

他们又去了南美洲南端的火地岛。那是个奇异的地方，狂风暴雨不断，当地人不种粮食作物，而且在湿漉漉的地上席地而眠。达尔文仔细观察他们的相貌和习惯。

“如果人类都是伊甸园亚当和夏娃的后代，为什么又如此不同呢？”查尔斯感到纳闷。

在海拔一万两千英尺的山上，达尔文发现了海贝，稍低处还有树木化石。

达尔文想：“这么说这些树原来长在海边，海水上涨淹没了它们，后来海底上升了……。”对一个向来接受《圣经》字字箴言灌输的人来说，这真让人疑惑不解。

在智利，达尔文亲眼目睹了地震和火山，他开始明白其中的原因。他认为，地球中心非常炽热，地球表面某些地方要薄一些，地震和火山往往爆发于这些地方。

跟随着贝格尔号做环球航行，达尔文开始思考地球上生命的演变。他看到海中的火山岛，就会对那里生物的由来感到好奇。

而笃信《圣经》的人认为所有的生物和人类都是上帝创造的。可果真如此，为什么有的化石看起来像是上帝的“失误”？它们未能适应变化，也因此而绝迹了。

贝格尔号继续航行至塔希提岛、新西兰和澳大利亚。达尔文在那些地方第一次见到了珊瑚和珊瑚岛。这些岛是怎么形成的？很快，他就有了答案。珊瑚由数百万微小生物的遗骸组成，经过数百万年的堆积，每一百万年就形成了一座岛屿。达尔文将这一切写进他的笔记里。

五年后他回到家，不再是那个能翻山越岭、并扛着沉重的化石一口气行走数英里的健康小伙儿了。

他着手整理他的收集物。1839年，他和表妹艾玛·维奇伍德结婚，婚后生活幸福，育有十个孩子。人们发现他在书房工作时，总有一个孩子在身旁。

他的第一部大作《贝格尔号的生态园》颇受欢迎，但他却不急于将自己对生命起源的看法公诸于世，他确实非常担心自己的理论与教会广为接受的观点发生冲突。

所幸剑桥大学的博物学家们都劝说达尔文公开他的观点，因此达尔文和另一位持相同观点的博物学家瓦雷斯共同发表了一篇文章。一年后，他的巨著《物竞天择，物种起源》问世并掀起了轩然**。

人们认为达尔文在说人是猴子的后代，这种观点简直有失体面！虽然大多数科学家同意达尔文是对的，亚当和夏娃之说仅仅是故事而已，但教会的力量如此强大，这部著作没有给达尔文带来任何荣誉。

许多年后，他出版了另一部名著《人类的演化》。他在皇家研究院作了一次演讲，全场听众一致起立为之鼓掌。

他的健康每况愈下，但他工作不止，并说“我不得不放弃观察的时候，我也就完了。”1882年4月17日还在工作的他，两天以后与世长辞。

这里有个十分简单的:1. Darwin's evolutionary theory and its impact

Charles Darwin(1809-1882) was an English naturalist and author. His Origin of Species (1859) and Decent of Men (1871) exerted a strong impact in the history of Western thought. In his books, Darwin hypothesized that over the millennia man had evolved from lower forms of life. Humans were special, not because God had created them in His image, but because they had successfully adapted to changing environmental conditions and had passed on their survival?making characteristics genetically. Survival of the fittest is the fact or principle of the survival of the forms of plant and animal life best fitted for existing conditions, while related but less fit forms become extinct.

请英文高手帮我翻译一下我的论文摘要 小弟跪谢 ........

The horse streptococci(the Streptococcus equi) belong to the 兰 surname germ for cent of the Cs streptococci, include the horse streptococci MA3 YA3 ZHONG3 (Streptococcus. equi subsp. Equi),the horse streptococci monster epidemic disease second kind(S. equi subsp. Zooepidemicus)with horse streptococci MA3 YA3 ZHONG3 (S. equi subsp. equisi milis).That germ can pass external injury,surgical operation,or cure etc. the path infect various animals, causing diseases, such as septicemia Sepsis,meningitis Encephalitis and mastitis(Mastitis)...etc..Its particular gene expression outcome is pathogenic(Pathogenicity) to germ to have special meaning.

Study gene, be in order to understand its function and expression and adjust to control a way.The information of make use of the living creature's learn(Bioinformatics) can adjust to control to carry on the estimate and ****ysis to the function and expression of the gene, the province goes to a trivial experiment to investigate, providing the instruction direction for the experiment verification.The function and sequence of the gene are closely-related, when the likeness that is a sequence exceeds certain scope, they carry out same function probably, pass will don't know the function sequence with have already known the contrast of the function sequence, if their likeness is higher and then can predict a sequence to correspond function.

The purpose of this topic research is to be learn with the living creature information Be the theories foundation usage tool software with according to WEB on-line service to some a do not know the horse streptococci gene carry on a series of ****ysis, the result integrate, predicting the function of this gene expression outcome thus.

The horse streptococci P50 gene sequence length is a 100 BPs, the whole gene has a to open all of the reading frame(ORF)s to grow a 90 BPs, coding 100 amino acids 残基s.

The horse streptococci P50 the gene sequence entered the BLAST service net industry that the NCBI provide first, handle stuffs with the form and list of the net industry up, the choice correspond of the parameter hand over to the data server to go forward to act like the source index(the homology Search).Many living creature information centers all have the BLAST server of the specialized movement.Here applied http:www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov?b last?(Circulate BLASTR2.0, the United States, the maintenance GenBank)

Then the result detection of the basis BLAST index(Search) and the protein of the horse streptococci P50 gene sequence expression together the source is the tallest of 3 kinds of protein one by one in order is 123

The secondly applied DNASTAR software translates the horse streptococci P50 gene sequence into the amino acids sequence, the result manifestation P50 gene sequence translates 20 amino acidses totally.

Will and the horse streptococci P50 amino acids sequence together source the high sequence inputs to the tool software respectively, carrying on evolving a tree(the Phylogenetic Tree) to draw.

Hand over the horse streptococci P50 amino acidses(the Amino Acids) sequence(Sequence) to the professional website in, can immediately predict the second class structure of that amino acids sequence.Then make use of a software ****ysis P50 gene protein physics and chemistry property.

The Darwinian Theory of Evolution(the Evolutionary theory) gave comparison the gene set to learn to provide the theories basis.The relative relation(kinship) is more near, its gene sequence is a source(homology) together more high.Two sequences together the source is more high, may express the function of the outcome(the Expression Product) very much so more alike.Through the sorting to the result.Analytical, according to discover the horse streptococci P50 genes express of may be the fat egg white(the Substrate binding Lipoprotein) that a kind of bottom thing combine, participate the metals transport system(the Transport System) to constitute directly, the kind's transport system has in the germ from process acquire nourishment inside the host(HOST) body to close an important function.This kind of egg white is the fat egg white(the Substrate binding Lipoprotein) that a conveyance,such as the bottom thing of the metals ions, such as iron,manganese and zinc...etc., combine, we can call it as the streptococci metals to combine the fat egg white.(the Metal binding lipoproteins, MBLS)This kind of egg white is a kind of poisonous dint factor(the virulent factor) of the horse streptococci(the Streptococcus equi) is a germ with the result that the foundation of the disease to the horse streptococci physiology bio-chemical characteristic and pathogenic have very important influence and the meaning.

回答者：6392541196 - 同进士出身 六级 3-9 20:52

The horse streptococci(Streptococcus equi) belongs to an orchid surname the Cs of the germ a streptococci for cent and include the horse streptococci Ma3 Ya3 's kind(Streptococcus. equi subsp. Equi), the horse streptococci monster epidemic disease second kind(S. equi subsp. Zooepidemicus)with the horse Lian4 Qiu2 Jun4 Lei4 Ma3 Ya3 's kind(S. equi subsp. equisi milis).That germ can pass external injury, surgical operation, or cure etc. the path infect various animals and cause diseases, such as septicemia Sepsis, meningitis Encephalitis and mastitis(Mastitis)...etc..It particular gene expression the outcome be pathogenic(Pathogenicity) to germ to have special meaning.

Study gene, be in order to understand its function and expression and adjust to control a way.The information of make use of the living creature learn(Bioinformatics) and can adjust to control to carry on an estimate and ****yze to function and expression of gene, saved to go to a trivial experiment to investigate, for test a verification to provide an instruction direction.Function and sequence of gene are closely-related, the likeness which is a sequence exceed certain scope, they probably carry out same function and pass will don't know a function sequence and have already known the contrast of function sequence, if their likeness is higher and then can predict a correspond of sequence function.

The purpose of this topic research be is learn with living creature information Be the usage tool of the theories foundation software with according to WEB of on-line service to some a have never known a horse streptococci the gene carries on a series of ****ysis and the result integrate and thus predict that this gene expresses the function of outcome.

The gene sequence of the horse streptococci P50 length is a 100 BPs and the whole gene has 1 to open all of the reading frame(ORF)s to grow a 90 BPs and code 100 amino acids remnants Ji.

The gene sequence of the horse streptococci P50 got into the BLAST service net industry that the NCBI provide first, once handle stuffs with the form and list on the net industry up, the choice correspond of the parameter hand over a data server to go forward to act like a source an index(homology Search).The many living creature information center all has the BLAST server of specialized movement.Here applied http:www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov?b last?(Circulate BLASTR2.0, the United States, support GenBank)

Then the protein of the search result detection of the basis BLAST and the gene sequence of the horse streptococci P50 expression together the source be the tallest of 3 kinds of proteins one by one in order is 123

The secondly applied DNASTAR software translates the gene sequence of the horse streptococci P50 into an amino acids sequence and the gene sequence of the result manifestation P50 totally translates 20 amino acidses.

Will with the amino acids sequence of the horse streptococci P50 together source the sequence of the Gao inputs tool software respectively and carry on evolving a draw of tree(Phylogenetic Tree).

Hand over the amino acidses(Amino Acids) sequence(Sequence) of the horse streptococci P50 to the professional website in, then predict the second class structure of that amino acids sequence.Then make use of the physics and chemistry property of the gene protein of the software ****ysis P50.

The Darwinian Theory of Evolution(Evolutionary theory) give comparison gene the set learn to provide a theories basis.The relative relation(kinship) is more near, its gene sequence together source(homology) more high.Two sequences together the source be more high, so and very may express the function of outcome(Expression Product) more alike.The process i

动物为什么要睡觉？

1.生理时钟与日节律在一天24小时内，个体在生活上呈现周期性的活动；何时睡眠，何时进食，何时工作，何时排（），几乎都有一定的顺序，而此等顺序几乎是由个体生理上的运作所决定。像此种决定个体周期性生活活动的生理作用，称为生理时钟（biological Clock）。生理时钟之所以形成，除个体生活习惯因素（如经常上夜班者的生理时钟即与一般人不同）之外，主要受一天24小时变化所决定。例如：一天之内的温度有显著的变化，人类身体的体温，在一天内也有显著的变化，在环境温度降低而人的体温也降低的情况之下，个体就会产生睡眠的需求。每天气温的变化规律，大致是午夜至凌晨五时左右的一段时间最低，人类的体温，也正好是在此一时段，降至最低。因此，对绝大多数的人来说，晚上十一点钟至翌晨六点钟，是睡眠时间。故而生理时钟也称为日节律（circadian rhythm）。对动物的生活而言，日节律具有极大的支配力。因此，候鸟或鱼类的迁徙，多在地球上的南北向同经度内移动，藉以维持其周期性的生理时钟。人类祖先的活动，本来也像其他动物一样，日出而作，日入而息。惟以现代交通工具快捷，喷射机的飞行，使地球两对面的距离，变为朝发夕至；从台北飞到纽约，正好形成晨昏颠倒，使人遇到了睡眠适应困难的问题。这现象称为飞行时差（jet lag）。飞行时差的一般征候是：身心疲倦，食欲不振，睡眠暂时失常。飞行时差的困扰程度，因飞行方向而异；顺太阳方向（西行去欧洲）飞行时，飞行时差的困扰较少；逆太阳方向（东行去美洲）飞行时，飞行时差的困扰较大。飞行时差形成的睡眠困扰，一般在三天至一周内即可自行消失，而在新环境内重新建立起个人的生理时钟。2.恢复论与保养论恢复论（restoration theory）与保养论（conservation theory）是解释睡眠必要性的两个理论。按恢复论的说法，睡眠具有恢复精力与〔恢复疲劳〕的功能。恢复论所指的〔恢复〕，包括生理的与心理的两个层面。就生理层面讲，个体在清醒时的一切活动，如果一直不停，不得充分休息，无论在神经系统的传导，或是在肌肉腺体的运作上，既不能达到充实完美的境界，也无法适时完成新陈代谢作用。体力消耗后需要睡眠休息，有如营养消耗后需要饮食补充，是一样的道理。人的体力像一座水库，水库中的贮水耗用到一定地步，必须将出水口暂时关闭，或将出水量减少，俾使水库内贮水量增加，以维持长久的供水功能。此一生理层面的恢复作用，多半在沉睡阶段发生。就心理的层面讲，睡眠可以帮助个体完成清醒时尚未结束的心理活动。在学习心理学上早有实验证明，练习过后立即睡眠者，醒来之后会有较好的记忆。原因就是练习后立即睡眠，可供未完成的讯息处理工作，继续在睡眠时完成。按此种心理层面的恢复作用，多半在浅睡阶段发生。作梦是一种心理活动，而且梦中情境常与日间生活有关，甚至日间未能解决的问题，在梦中可能获得答案，此事也可做为睡眠具有恢复功能的佐证。按心理学家的研究，只有在浅睡阶段才会作梦。保养论是恢复论的补充。按保养论的说法，个体之所以需要睡眠，主要是为了保存精力，涵泳生机，以免疲劳过度，危害健康。换言之，对维护身心正常功能而言，睡眠具有自动的调节作用。3.演化论对睡眠必要性的解释，除上述两种理论之外，另有一种补充性的理论，称为演化论（evolutionary theory）。按演化论的说法，个体除了必须睡眠之外，包括人类在内的各种动物，之所以表现出各种不同类型的睡眠方式，其原因主要是在生存过程中长期演化而来的。人类在夜间睡眠，而且有固定地点，原因是人类缺少夜行能力；为确保安全，免于野兽侵袭，终而演化出先是巢居穴处，继而建筑房屋的适应能力。牛、羊、骆驼之类动物，睡眠分段进行，原因是它们终年居于空旷，无固定地点栖身，必须随时睡眠休息，随时觉醒，俾便遭遇侵袭时能随时逃逸。此类动物的饮食起居，无定点，无定时，原因是它们居于草原地带，随时都有草吃。此外，有些动物，诸如蛙与蛇之类，在寒冬不能出外觅食，而又缺乏像候鸟那样的迁徙能力，于是经长期适应环境，终而演化出冬眠的能力。睡眠既为个体所必须，如长期缺乏睡眠或被剥夺了睡眠时间，对人的身心将会产生何种影响？以往心理学家，从事过很多实验研究，所得到的结果颇为一致，而且是颇为令人意外的结果。剥夺睡眠（到了睡眠时间不准睡或自愿不睡）实验中，时间最长的记录是200小时（八天多）。结果发现：受试者除了感到极度疲劳，昏昏欲睡之外，在其身心功能方面，并无显著异常现象发生。甚至曾有心理学家研究发现，连续维持十一天不睡眠的受试者，在智力测验的表现上，居然没有受到很大的影响。]

The very idea of 里的very是什么意思

是强调这个注意或者想法本身怎么怎么，比如: The very idea of it makes me sick. 可以翻译成: 只要想到这个就会恶心。

very用法：

一、adj. (形容词)

1、very用作形容词,表示“实在的,真正的”“极端的”,在句中用作定语。

2、very和the,this,that,my,your,his连用,作“正是,就是,甚至于”解。

3、very的比较级verier现已不用,最高级形式veriest有时还用来加强语气。

二、adv. (副词)

1、very用作副词主要用于形容词、副词、限定词(如many,few,little等)前以加强语气,表示“很,非常,十分,极”。

2、very用于形容词最高级或own之前,表示“十足,完全”。

3、very用于否定结构时,含有“恰如其分”的意味,即相当于rather或fairly。not very(不很,不大)用起来比较委婉,美国人常用not so。very good或very well意为“好,可以,没问题”,常用来客气地表示同意或允诺,通常用在争论、劝说或被迫之后表示同意或答应。

另外,very well有时也作反语用,表示说话人自己并不怎么愿意。very much放在宾语之后或置于实义动词之前,一般不可放在句子开头。

4、very可表示具体或抽象的位置极限。

扩展资料：

近义词

quite 读音：英 [kwaɪt]   美 [kwaɪt]

adv.非常;相当，很;确实如此

例句：

1、I felt quite bitter about it at the time

当时我对这件事感到相当怨愤。

2、This was a serious breach of trust quite apart from the gravity of any offence

这不光是情节重大的犯罪行为，还是一种严重的背信行为。

3、The exam was pretty difficult.

这场考试相当难。

求一份关于达尔文的英文介绍

(1)

Charles Robert Darwin ( 1809 - 1882 )

Charles Robert Darwin was born at The Mount ,Shrewbury ,England , on 12 February 1809. He was the son of Dr. Charles Waring Darwin and the grandson of Dr. Era**us Darwin, a naturalist whose speculations were to have a profound influence on the younger family scion.

Young Charles was educated at the grammer school at Shrew**ury , thence he went to Edinburgh (1825) and afterward to Cambridge .He din not excel in school., however. He was, in fact, considered rather below the common standard in intellect.He became a pupil of Professors Henslow and Sedgewicke at Cambridge,and under their guidance his consuming interest in botany began to bear fruit. He received his degree at Cambridge in 1831 and shortly thereafter , at the age of twentytwo , joined a hydrographical survey as an unpaid naturalist on H. M.S Beagle. For five years he served aboard the Beagle , studying the flora, fauna , and geology of numerous temperate, subtropical , and tropical districts sorrounding South America. This historic round-the -world voyage which Darwin later referred to as " by far the most important event in my life," laid the foundations for the remainder of his life's work, placing him among the foremost of rising natuaralists . The results of his services were given in his Journal of Researches into the geology and natural history of the countries visite.

Darwin was not a robust man even in his young manhood but he was a zealous naturalist who refused to be shackled by illness; on his return to England he began to write and experiment extensively ,despite poor health, exploring all the sciences of earth, life, and man. Thus he rose to renown.Few were privileged to know him on a close personal level, however, for owing to his always feeble health and retiring nature, he seldom entered into social functions or close personal relationships . Instead he labored diligently and introspectively in the pursuit of scientific study. By his work at the Geological Society ,and by his numerous papers on coral reefs , the natural history of the cirrhipeds,and many other biological researches he gained fame as an authority.

In 1838 he accepted the appointment as secretary of the Geological Society and was elected to the Royal Society the following year. Meanwhile ,he had married his cousin , Emma wedgwood , and settled in Down,kent , shortly thereafter . Years of study and writing followed .

Darwin held that no higher plant could fertilize itself for a perpetuity of generations without the intercession of being cross-fertilized with some other individual . This theory he published in 1859 in his work entitled On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection . This work brought him controversial fame as it called down upon him a shower of blame and abuse for propounding such a theory without providing absolute proof.

Native terrestrial orchids grew in abundance near Darwin's home and , because they were the " most singular and modified forms in the vegetable kingdom, " he began an extensive study of their reproduction in order to prove his theory of cross-fertilization aganist that of self-fertilization . With his son and his friends often assisting him in his observations , he spent unnumbered hours in the garden and fields making notes on the number of flowers that set seed; setting up controls by the use of nets and bell jars; catching bees and moths and examining the showy markings and structures of species which were consistent in attracting natural pollinators . Early in his reserches he noted the pollination of Orchis pyramidalis by a particular moth, and studied such unusual adaptations as the " flinging " of pollen onto the pollinator in the genus Catasetum and the pollination of Ophrys by pseudo-copulation.

The studies were of such interest to Darwin that he shortly initiated a copious correspondence with Sir Joseph Hooker (then assistant director at Kew), and a letter to Hooker in October 1861 he stated ," I never was more interested in any subject in my life than this of Orchids."

As his interest in the order became intensified , he began to study the pollinating devices of tropical orchids: the shooting mechani** of Catasetum species , the " bucket" lip of Coryanthes , and many others. Observing the remarkably lengthy nectary of Angraecum sesquipedale, he predicted that it must be necessary for some certain moth with a footlong tongue to be the pollinating agent for this remarkable species .

Finally gathering sufficient evidence to uphold his theories , in 1862 Darwin published his classic work, on the Fertilisation of Orchids by insects. This work put forth the results of his reservations and not only removed all doubt regarding the function of the pollinia , but drew the attention of naturalists to the complex symbiosis existing between flowering plants and food-seeking insects. The introduction of this book states his purpose :

.......... In my volume " On the Origin of Species " I gave only general reasons for the belief that it is an almost universal law of nature that the higher organic being require an occasional cross with another individual ; or ,which is the same thing ,that no hermaphrodite fertilises itself for a perpetuity of generations . Having been blamed for propounding this doctrine without giving ample facts , for which I had not sufficient space in that work , I wish here to show that I have not spoken without having gone into details.

I have been led to publish this little treatise separately, as it is too large to be incorporated with any other subject . As Orchids are universally acknoledge to rank amongst the most singular and most modified forms in the vegetable kingdom , I have thought that the facts to be given might lead some observers to look more curiously into the habits of our several native species....... This treatise affords me also an opportunity of attempting to show that the study of organic beings may be as interesting to an observer who is fully convinced that the structure of each is due to secondary laws ,as to one who views every trifflinf detail of structure as the result of the direct interposition of the Creator .

As the facts were brought together to bear on Darwin's theory ,the tide of feeling among naturalists turned in his favor . Known for his honesty ,his persistent study habits, and his unprejudiced devotion to truth , he gained immediate support from such men as Sir Joseph Hooker , Professor Huxley ,Mr. George Bentham , and others. Their " conversions" to a belief in evolution were remarkably rapid, and even the educated minority of the population at large soon grasped evolutionary concepts.

For the remainder of his life Darwin studied ,reserched , and made many important contributions to geology, zoological geography , taxonomy ,ecology , and animal breeding . He died on 19 April 1882, at the age of seventy-three.

Other of his important works in the various fields of science include The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs ,The Descent of Man , Geological Observations in South America, Insectivorous Plants , Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom, Formation of Vegetable Mold ,Emotions im Man and Animals , Principles of Variation Under Domestication, adn The Power of Movement in Plants .

Darwin's orchid studies become the basis of a number of later works by succeeding naturalists and botanists , but while his contributions to orchidology were therefore unprecedented in pollination studies , their importance is equally shared in science as a breakthrough which resulted in theories that changed the whole foundation of scientific knowledge .

(2)

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) was an an English naturalist whose theory of evolution is one of the greatest contributions ever made to science. Darwin stated this theory in his book The Origin of Species (1859). In another book called The Descent of Man (1871 ) he applied his theory to the evolution of man from a primitive monkey-like animal. Both books aroused world-wide controversy. Many considered them to be offensive, atheistic, blasphemous and Darwin's caricatures were published in magazines. Although later research has modified or disproved some of Darwin's findings, scientists still accept his basic ideas.

Darwin was born in Shrew**ury and his father was a physician. As a youth Darwin was interested in all living things. He read all the books on geology and biology he could find and collected plant and animal specimens, including fossils. In 1825 he began medical studies at the University of Edinburgh but gave them up after two years. In 1828 he entered Cambridge University to study theology getting a degree in 1831. He eventually obtained a post as unpaid naturalist aboard the surveying ship H.M.S. Beagle.

In 1831 the Beagle left on a five-year voyage to South American and Australian waters. During this time Darwin observed and studied in many remote regions of the world. He collected great numbers of plant and animal specimens. From detailed notes of his observations he began to develop the theory that was to make him famous. When he returned to England Darwin began studying and investigating nature. In 1844 Darwin began to compile his greatest contribution, Origin of Species, in which he proposed his theory of natural selection. All life, he said, is a continuous struggle in which only the fittest can survive. In this period Darwin discovered that the idea of natural selection was not exclusively his. Alfred Russel Wallace ( 1823-1913 ), a young naturalist, had developed similar ideas in an essay called "On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Independently from the Original Type." Wallace sent this paper to Darwin for an opinion. Darwin took Wallace's manuscript to a friend, Sir Charles Lyell, who decided that both Wallace's and Darwin's ideas should be presented at the same time. On July 1,1858, both papers were read at a meeting of the Linnaean Society of London.

After publication of Origin of Species in 1859, Darwin continued to write on botany, geology, and zoology until his death in 1882. He is buried in Westminster Abbey.

(3)

Darwin, Charles Robert (1809-1882), British scientist, who laid the foundation of modern evolutionary theory with his concept of the development of all forms of life through the slow-working process of natural selection. His work was of major influence on the life and earth sciences and on modern thought in general.

Born in Shrew**ury, Shropshire, England, on February 12, 1809, Darwin was the fifth child of a wealthy and sophisticated English family. His maternal grandfather was the successful china and pottery entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood; his paternal grandfather was the well-known 18th-century physician and savant Era**us Darwin. After graduating from the elite school at Shrew**ury in 1825, young Darwin went to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1827 he dropped out of medical school and entered the University of Cambridge, in preparation for becoming a clergyman of the Church of England. There he met two stellar figures: Adam Sedgwick, a geologist, and John Stevens Henslow, a naturalist. Henslow not only helped build Darwin's self-confidence but also taught his student to be a meticulous and painstaking observer of natural phenomena and collector of specimens. After graduating from Cambridge in 1831, the 22-year-old Darwin was taken aboard the English survey ship HMS Beagle, largely on Henslow's recommendation, as an unpaid naturalist on a scientific expedition around the world.

Voyage of the Beagle

Darwin's job as naturalist aboard the Beagle gave him the opportunity to observe the various geological formations found on different continents and islands along the way, as well as a huge variety of fossils and living organi**s. In his geological observations, Darwin was most impressed with the effect that natural forces had on shaping the earth's surface.

At the time, most geologists adhered to the so-called catastrophist theory that the earth had experienced a succession of creations of animal and plant life, and that each creation had been destroyed by a sudden catastrophe, such as an upheaval or convulsion of the earth's surface (see GEOLOGY: HISTORY OF GEOLOGICAL THOUGHT: 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES). According to this theory, the most recent catastrophe, Noah's flood, wiped away all life except those forms taken into the ark. The rest were visible only in the form of fossils. In the view of the catastrophists, species were individually created and immutable, that is, unchangeable for all time.

The catastrophist viewpoint (but not the immutability of species) was challenged by the English geologist Sir Charles Lyell in his two-volume work Principles of Geology (1830-33). Lyell maintained that the earth's surface is undergoing constant change, the result of natural forces operating uniformly over long periods.

Aboard the Beagle, Darwin found himself fitting many of his observations into Lyell's general uniformitarian view. Beyond that, however, he realized that some of his own observations of fossils and living plants and animals cast doubt on the Lyell-supported view that species were specially created. He noted, for example, that certain fossils of supposedly extinct species closely resembled living species in the same geographical area. In the Galapagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador, he also observed that each island supported its own form of tortoise, mockingbird, and finch; the various forms were closely related but differed in structure and eating habits from island to island. Both observations raised the question, for Darwin, of possible links between distinct but similar species.

Theory of Natural Selection

After returning to England in 1836, Darwin began recording his ideas about changeability of species in his Notebooks on the Tran**utation of Species. Darwin's explanation for how organi**s evolved was brought into sharp focus after he read An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), by the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus, who explained how human populations remain in balance. Malthus argued that any increase in the availability of food for basic human survival could not match the geometrical rate of population growth. The latter, therefore, had to be checked by natural limitations such as famine and disease, or by social actions such as war.

Darwin immediately applied Malthus's argument to animals and plants, and by 1838 he had arrived at a sketch of a theory of evolution through natural selection (see SPECIES AND SPECIATION). For the next two decades he worked on his theory and other natural history projects. (Darwin was independently wealthy and never had to earn an income.) In 1839 he married his first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and soon after, moved to a **all estate, Down House, outside London. There he and his wife had ten children, three of whom died in infancy.

Darwin's theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper presented at the same time as one by Alfred Russel Wallace, a young naturalist who had come independently to the theory of natural selection. Darwin's complete theory was published in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. Often referred to as the book that shook the world, the Origin sold out on the first day of publication and subsequently went through six editions.

Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is essentially that, because of the food-supply problem described by Malthus, the young born to any species intensely compete for survival. Those young that survive to produce the next generation tend to embody favorable natural variations (however slight the advantage may be)the process of natural selectionand these variations are passed on by heredity. Therefore, each generation will improve adaptively over the preceding generations, and this gradual and continuous process is the source of the evolution of species. Natural selection is only part of Darwin's vast conceptual scheme; he also introduced the concept that all related organi**s are descended from common ancestors. Moreover, he provided additional support for the older concept that the earth itself is not static but evolving.

Reactions to the Theory

The reaction to the Origin was immediate. Some biologists argued that Darwin could not prove his hypothesis. Others criticized Darwin's concept of variation, arguing that he could explain neither the origin of variations nor how they were passed to succeeding generations. This particular scientific objection was not answered until the birth of modern genetics in the early 20th century (see HEREDITY; MENDEL'S LAWS). In fact, many scientists continued to express doubts for the following 50 to 80 years. The most publicized attacks on Darwin's ideas, however, came not from scientists but from religious opponents. The thought that living things had evolved by natural processes denied the special creation of humankind and seemed to place humanity on a plane with the animals; both of these ideas were serious contradictions to orthodox theological opinion.

Later Years

Darwin spent the rest of his life expanding on different aspects of problems raised in the Origin. His later booksincluding The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868), The Descent of Man (1871), and The Expression of the Emotions in Animals and Man (1872)were detailed expositions of topics that had been confined to **all sections of the Origin. The importance of his work was well recognized by his contemporaries; Darwin was elected to the Royal Society (1839) and the French Academy of Sciences (1878). He was also honored by burial in Westminster Abbey after he died in Down, Kent, on April 19, 1882.

为什莫人要睡觉

显然，睡眠是必要的。但如追问：个体为什么必须要有睡眠？如果持续数日不睡，将会在身心上产生什么后果呢？此类问题，在心理学上迄未获得肯定的答案。 对“个体为什么必须睡眠？”一问题，到目前为止有以下三种不同解释： 1.生理时钟与日节律 在一天24小时内，个体在生活上呈现周期性的活动；何时睡眠，何时进食，何时工作，何时排（），几乎都有一定的顺序，而此等顺序几乎是由个体生理上的运作所决定。像此种决定个体周期性生活活动的生理作用，称为生理时钟（biological Clock）。生理时钟之所以形成，除个体生活习惯因素（如经常上夜班者的生理时钟即与一般人不同）之外，主要受一天24小时变化所决定。例如：一天之内的温度有显著的变化，人类身体的体温，在一天内也有显著的变化，在环境温度降低而人的体温也降低的情况之下，个体就会产生睡眠的需求。每天气温的变化规律，大致是午夜至凌晨五时左右的一段时间最低，人类的体温，也正好是在此一时段，降至最低。因此，对绝大多数的人来说，晚上十一点钟至翌晨六点钟，是睡眠时间。故而生理时钟也称为日节律（circadian rhythm）。 对动物的生活而言，日节律具有极大的支配力。因此，候鸟或鱼类的迁徙，多在地球上的南北向同经度内移动，藉以维持其周期性的生理时钟。人类祖先的活动，本来也像其他动物一样，日出而作，日入而息。惟以现代交通工具快捷，喷射机的飞行，使地球两对面的距离，变为朝发夕至；从台北飞到纽约，正好形成晨昏颠倒，使人遇到了睡眠适应困难的问题。这现象称为飞行时差（jet lag）。飞行时差的一般征候是：身心疲倦，食欲不振，睡眠暂时失常。飞行时差的困扰程度，因飞行方向而异；顺太阳方向（西行去欧洲）飞行时，飞行时差的困扰较少；逆太阳方向（东行去美洲）飞行时，飞行时差的困扰较大。飞行时差形成的睡眠困扰，一般在三天至一周内即可自行消失，而在新环境内重新建立起个人的生理时钟。 2.恢复论与保养论 恢复论（restoration theory）与保养论（conservation theory）是解释睡眠必要性的两个理论。按恢复论的说法，睡眠具有恢复精力与［恢复疲劳］的功能。恢复论所指的［恢复］，包括生理的与心理的两个层面。就生理层面讲，个体在清醒时的一切活动，如果一直不停，不得充分休息，无论在神经系统的传导，或是在肌肉腺体的运作上，既不能达到充实完美的境界，也无法适时完成新陈代谢作用。体力消耗后需要睡眠休息，有如营养消耗后需要饮食补充，是一样的道理。人的体力像一座水库，水库中的贮水耗用到一定地步，必须将出水口暂时关闭，或将出水量减少，俾使水库内贮水量增加，以维持长久的供水功能。此一生理层面的恢复作用，多半在沉睡阶段发生。 就心理的层面讲，睡眠可以帮助个体完成清醒时尚未结束的心理活动。在学习心理学上早有实验证明，练习过后立即睡眠者，醒来之后会有较好的记忆。原因就是练习后立即睡眠，可供未完成的讯息处理工作，继续在睡眠时完成。按此种心理层面的恢复作用，多半在浅睡阶段发生。作梦是一种心理活动，而且梦中情境常与日间生活有关，甚至日间未能解决的问题，在梦中可能获得答案，此事也可做为睡眠具有恢复功能的佐证。按心理学家的研究，只有在浅睡阶段才会作梦。 保养论是恢复论的补充。按保养论的说法，个体之所以需要睡眠，主要是为了保存精力，涵泳生机，以免疲劳过度，危害健康。换言之，对维护身心正常功能而言，睡眠具有自动的调节作用。 3.演化论 对睡眠必要性的解释，除上述两种理论之外，另有一种补充性的理论，称为演化论（evolutionary theory）。按演化论的说法，个体除了必须睡眠之外，包括人类在内的各种动物，之所以表现出各种不同类型的睡眠方式，其原因主要是在生存过程中长期演化而来的。人类在夜间睡眠，而且有固定地点，原因是人类缺少夜行能力；为确保安全，免于野兽侵袭，终而演化出先是巢居穴处，继而建筑房屋的适应能力。牛、羊、骆驼之类动物，睡眠分段进行，原因是它们终年居于空旷，无固定地点栖身，必须随时睡眠休息，随时觉醒，俾便遭遇侵袭时能随时逃逸。此类动物的饮食起居，无定点，无定时，原因是它们居于草原地带，随时都有草吃。此外，有些动物，诸如蛙与蛇之类，在寒冬不能出外觅食，而又缺乏像候鸟那样的迁徙能力，于是经长期适应环境，终而演化出冬眠的能力。 睡眠既为个体所必须，如长期缺乏睡眠或被剥夺了睡眠时间，对人的身心将会产生何种影响？以往心理学家，从事过很多实验研究，所得到的结果颇为一致，而且是颇为令人意外的结果。剥夺睡眠（到了睡眠时间不准睡或自愿不睡）实验中，时间最长的记录是200小时（八天多）。结果发现：受试者除了感到极度疲劳，昏昏欲睡之外，在其身心功能方面，并无显著异常现象发生。甚至曾有心理学家研究发现，连续维持十一天不睡眠的受试者，在智力测验的表现上，居然没有受到很大的影响。